Role Of Queen In Beowulf Grendel (1481 words) Essay Example For Students

Job Of Queen In Beowulf Grendel (1481 words) Essay Job of Queen in Beowulf GrendelIn the two writings, Beowulf and Grendel, the principle reason for the Queens are to serve the courts as weavers of harmony. In Grendel in any case, Queen Wealththeow is portrayed in a lot more prominent detail and fills a further need. The peruser gains understanding to a section Grendel that is absent in Beowulf, his craving for a human. It was not abnormal for ladies to be offered as tokens of harmony inside the honorable courts. In the novel Grendel, Wealhtheows sibling, King of the Helmings, offered her to King Hrothgar to advance harmony among the Helmings and Scyldings. She had given, her life for those she cherished. So would any giggling, eyelash batting female in her court, given the best possible arrangement, the insignificant conditions(Grendel, p.102). It is unexpected how she advanced harmony from her appearance since she was a basic part in keeping harmony, as the weaver of harmony in the later of the two writings. Sovereign Wealhtheow an yway isn't the main lady in the writings that was neglected to support conciliation among fighting courts. Sovereign Hygd was offered to Hygelac under fundamentally the same as conditions as told in Beowulf, and depicted a similar job in Hygelacs realm. There is reference in the two writings concerning this convention, and it is apparent to the peruser this isn't an uncommon Anglo-Saxon custom. Sovereign Wealhtheow and Queen Hygd filled in as magnificent good examples for the courts in which they served. They exemplified the characteristics and manners of the respectable individuals. Sovereign Wealhtheow demonstrated great balance from the earliest starting point of the two writings. She was praiseworthy as she passed the mead bowl around Heorot. The contribution of the bowl was representative, being that the bowl was first given to Hrothgar and afterward went to Beowulf, as though she gave him her trust. Beowulf gave Wealhtheow his assurance that he would be effective or bite the d ust in fight. After she gave Hrothgar and Beowulf the mead bowl she served the Scyldings, and did as such as though they were her own kin. She was not a Scylding, nor did she want to be one, however shenever made her despondency known, as depicted in Grendel. There isn't incredible detail on Queen Hygd in Grendel, yet from what the peruser can assemble from Beowulf, she is as a very remarkable female good example as Queen Wealhtheow. She was youthful however savvy. Actually King Hygelac felt threatened by Hygds insight. Sovereign Hygd was not at all like Wealhtheow in the manner by which she didn't uncovered numerous endowments. Hygd was increasingly worried about the fate of the individuals of her realm succeeding Hygelacs demise than Wealhtheow. Hygd offered Beowulf the realm since she trusted it was to the greatest advantage of thepeople, she adored the warriors and wished harmony among all the individuals. Wealtheow then again felt that the realm ought to be protected for her ch ildren. Wealhtheow talked after the quarrel at Finnsburg over the significance of her children assuming control over the realm in the sonnet Beowulf, and this helps Hrothgar to remember his age. This equivalent discourse influenced Hrothgar in the two writings. It constrained him to mull over his value of Wealhtheow. He understood that she was youthful and delightful, and need not be with an elderly person. Which exacerbated his distress even is the way that she realized this also. Sovereign Wealhtheow set up a superb camouflage when concealing the agony she encountered from being compelled to be Hrothgars spouse. Not at all like in Beowulf, in Grendel the peruser was given knowledge into Wealhtheows distress. The main time she would show her despondency was the point at which she would lie in bed around evening time with Hrothgar with her eyes brimming with tears. Some of the time she would leave the realm to stay in her distresses however she would be promptly encircled by watches, and accompanied inside. Wealhtheow was pining to go home, she missed her property, and her sibling. At the point when her sibling visited Heorot she gave no consideration to Hrothgar, andHrothgar satisfied going around the mead bowl. In Grendel, it recounted Hrothgars love for wealhtheow. He would regularly gaze at her in profound respect. In spite of her hatred she rewarded Hrothgar with much regard, she generally gazed toward him and alluded to him as my master. .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e , .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e .postImageUrl , .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e .focused content region { min-tallness: 80px; position: relative; } .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e , .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e:hover , .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e:visited , .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e:active { border:0!important; } .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e { show: square; progress: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-change: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; haziness: 1; change: darkness 250ms; webkit-change: murkiness 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e:active , .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e:hover { mistiness: 1; progress: obscurity 250ms; webkit-progress: darkness 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e .focused content zone { width: 100%; position: relative; } .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e .ctaText { fringe base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: intense; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; text-enhancement: underline; } .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; outskirt: none; outskirt sweep: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; text style weight: striking; line-stature: 26px; moz-outskirt range: 3px; text-adjust: focus; text-design: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-stature: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/straightforward arrow.png)no-rehash; position: supreme; right: 0; top: 0; } .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .u2583ffab732622f997f3 49623d293c4e .focused content { show: table; tallness: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .u2583ffab732622f997f349623d293c4e:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: Paper theme on Invisible Man EssayAlthough Wealhtheow has a lot of hatred towards serving the Danes, she puts all that close to her and satisfied her obligations as anpraiseworthy sovereign. In Grendel it told how she interfered with tipsy men in the mead lobby, as though she was their mom. Her mediation helped them to remember their duties toward the realm. Her quality brought light and warmth, men started talking, kidding and giggling, the two Danes and Geats together(Grendel, p.163). She made a positive inclination all through the realm. In her essence the Shaper vocalized on a positive note about solace and bliss. Wealhtheow offer ed Beowulf guidance regarding appropriate manners , how to address the Geats with mellow words. She prompted him to ensure he shared his endowments. Afterall that was a standard by which she lived. Before Beowulf left the Danes, Queen Wealhtheow gave Beowulf a valuable neckline , the Brosing accessory, in thankfulness for his obligation. She gave him the blessings with the goal that he could make known what his identity was, to be glad for his achievements. She wished him the good luck and solicited him to take care from her children. There was a lot of spotlight on Queen Wealhtheows external magnificence in the novel Grendel. It really expounded than in the sonnet, Beowulf. From Wealhtheows entrance into the novel, the peruser was told in incredible detail of her physical excellence. Beowulf essentially centered around her internal excellence. She was depicted as having hair red as fire, as delicate as the rosy sheen on winged serpents gold. Her face was delicate, bafflingly quiet (Grendel p.100). This mix made her a truly alluring lady. So alluring that Unferth was pulled in to her. Unferth played with Wealhtheow regularly in Grendel. At the point when she would offer him the mead he would look at her and look down and grin. Unferth felt humiliation after he said something about men executing their siblings while they were flushed. Not many individuals in Heorot found the remark comical, the sovereign was found napping. He regarded the sovereign, as did each one all through the realm. He was mortified at what he had stated, he felt lament and derision by his mix-up and looked at the sovereign without turning away. Being the benevolent individual that she was she excused him, and he was comforted. The desire for Wealhtheow didn't stop with Unferth. Maybe the most huge contrast in the two writings is that in Grendel,the beast, was pulled in to Wealhtheow. There is no proposal in Beowulf that Grendel groups any emotions toward the people. This longing for Wealhtheow gives the peruser better knowledge into Grendels character. Up until this point the peruser was given no indication that Grendel had anything with the exception of contempt toward mankind. Grendel was contacted the first occasion when he saw Wealhtheow, he was struck by her blamelessness and magnificence. He needed to wail at seeing her; the peruser had never been acquainted with this delicate side of the beast. The peruser wasnt the one in particular who had an issue understanding Grendels sentiments, Grendel couldnt comprehend them either. He was tormented by the red of her hair and the arrangement of her jawline and the white of her shoulders. There is certainly a sexual hint in Grendels want for Wealththeow. Upon his assault of her he tore her up by her feet as though he was going to part her into equal parts. He needed to execute her yet he was torn by his inclination for her, all the torment he needed to deliver was sexual. He needed to cook the appalling gap between her legs, and press out her defecation with his clench hands. His thought process in executing her w

Mohandas Gandhi essays

Mohandas Gandhi articles Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was conceived on October 2, 1869. He was conceived in Porbandar, which is a little, ocean side town in the Kathiawar Peninsula in western India. Its somewhere between Bombay and Karachi. He was the fourth youngster conceived of Karamchand who was the main priest of Porbandar (Green, 13). His mom, Putlibai, was Karamchands fourth spouse, and she was just thirteen when they got hitched. She was known as an unskilled, Hindu young lady (Fischer, 13). The family was off with numerous homes, gold, and attendants. Notwithstanding, that didn't have any effect in transit Gandhi felt about his tutoring. He thought that it was exceptionally unappealing and to some degree hard to learn. Gandhi says this regarding himself: I am a normal man with not exactly a normal capacity. I concede that I am not sharp mentally. Be that as it may, I dont mind. There is a breaking point to the advancement of the mind however none to that of the heart (Gardner, 313). He was into smokin g when he was twelve and taking cash simultaneously to get them. Today we would consider Gandhi a revolutionary child. At long last, some genuine issues got this childs consideration. It was the ideal opportunity for marriage at the period of just thirteen. The lady of the hour was thirteen additionally, with the name of Kasturbai. Their folks made the match yet didnt advise the youngsters until the plans were all finished (Green, 39). From the history we can tell the Gandhi was never truly anything to take a gander at, in any case, his better half Kasturbai was strikingly excellent. In spite of how lovely she was, that didnt prevent Gandhi from leaving her various occasions all through his life. He left her in 1888, soon after she had his first child, Harilal. On September 4, barely shy of his nineteenth birthday celebration, Mohandas made a beeline for Southampton (Green, 45). He was occupied with what we later called, getting oneself. Gandhi showed up in London on October 28, 1888. He was distinguished in England as a vegan and a... <!

Key Activities Block in Business Model Canvas

Key Activities Block in Business Model Canvas KEY ACTIVITIESAs the title suggests, these are the most important tasks a company must carry out in order to fulfill its business purpose. To be successful, a company must carry out key actions that are primarily dictated by its business model. As we studied with the key resources building block, key activities are similarly pivotal in an organization fulfilling its value proposition, reaching its customer segments, sustain its customer relationships and ultimately create long-term revenue streams. Key activities are different according to the business model of the organization carrying out the activity. Hence, an organization that relies heavily on its 3rd party contracts will list channel management as a key activity. A product-driven business will lend more significance to activities such as continuous research to understand their users better as well as constant innovation in technology.Hence, it is safe to assume that a key activity for software giant Microsoft is Software Devel opment; similarly, for computer manufacturer Dell, supply chain management may be a key activity, and a consulting business like McKinsey probably lists solving client problems as its key activity.QUESTIONS TO CONSIDERWhen evaluating your business through the Key Activities building block it is essential that you take a holistic view of the business and evaluate related building blocks as well, to understand how they will contribute to your key activities.Based on our value propositions, what kinds of activities are key to our business?What kinds of activities are key to our distribution channels?What kinds of activities are important if we want to maintain our customer relationships?What kinds of activities are fundamental to our revenue streams?Our Value Propositions will obviously have the most profound impact on the kind of activities we carry out. However, as the business flourishes, we may begin to include unnecessary activities within this block as well. To prevent this, we u se a method called the Minimum Viable Product or MVP, which is the most basic version of your product made through a single cycle of the build, measure and learn loop. Most entrepreneurs will resist the Minimum Viable Product because everyone believes that for a product to be a success, it must provide maximum value to its customers. This brings us back to the Customer Segment and Value Proposition building blocks where we learnt that we have to be selective about the customers we target and the kind of value we provide by relieving their pains and giving them gains. Creating a bloated product with tons of extra feature that are of no value to your customer but which add to his investment, is not the way to go. A product is a combination of its form and function, function being what it does and form detailing how it does it. This form is crucial to the customer experience and helps in determining the key activities. Similarly, the kind of customer relationship you want establish wil l also entail certain key activities to bring it about and so on.TYPICAL ACTIVITIESAs mentioned earlier the Key activities building block creates a bridge between your value propositions and the customer segments’ needs. Some typical key activities that are commonly practiced by most organizations are listed below;Research DevelopmentThe research and development department is required to liaise with all other functions of the company whether it be production, marketing or sales. The typical functions of a research department are mentioned below;New Product Research: Before a new product can be produced, it must first go through the research and development department which will explore what the design of the product should be, the expected production costs and how long it will take to produce sufficient amounts of the product. RD also looks into how much customers want or need the product.New Product Development: the research phase naturally leads to the product being developed d ue to the results achieved from the research phase.Existing Product Updates: RD must also look into existing products to see if they require an upgrade based on evolving consumer needs or new entrants into the product category in the market. These changes can additionally be attributed to product glitches that need resolving.Quality Checks: Companies can ask their RD departments to conduct quality checks or they may require the department to collaborate with the Quality Assurance team since they are well versed in the specifications of the product and are ideal for evaluating whether all products are up to the quality standards set by the company.Innovation: The RD team is also responsible for keeping an eye on innovations and new trends within the industry and ensuring that their product stays abreast of these trends.ProductionProduction management consists of a number of activities which are outlined below;Selection of product and design: the first step is to select the right prod uct and the right design for the product. This is a crucial decision because the combination of the right product (Value Proposition) and the right design (Key Activities)will dictate the success or the failure of the company. Value engineering and value analysis are parts of this activity.Selection of Production Process: this stage consists of deciding what production process the organization will be using including the right technology, machines, inventory management system, etc.Selecting Right Production Capacity: The production management must have full knowledge of the expected demand for the product and set the production capacity accordingly, since either a dearth or a surplus of the product may lead to problems for the company. Break-even analysis is the most popular tool used by production managers to predict capacity.Production Planning: The production manager must decide on the routing and scheduling of the product. Routing is aimed at creating a smooth flow of work by di scovering the easiest and most economical flow of work. Scheduling, on the other hand, refers to the timing of activities by mentioning a start and end time for each.Production Control: The production manager is also responsible for monitoring and controlling the production process. This is done by comparing planned production with actual production, exploring deviations if any and ultimately correcting these deviations to meet planned production.Quality and Cost Control: In today’s economically driven world, consumers won’t the maximum quality for the cheapest price and access to the internet and a world of options make them more discerning and fickle. Hence, it falls on the production manager to not only ensure that he is continuously improving the quality of the product but also to reduce costs so their product can remain competitive in the market in terms of price.Inventory Control: Inventory Control is fundamental to a production driven business because it prevents overstoc king or understocking. Overstocking means the company will be spending more money on materials that will ultimately go to waste. Understocking will effect production and result in late deliveries.Maintenance and Replacement of Machines: The production manager must be on top of the condition of the machines under his function by constantly monitoring them and scheduling regular maintenance like oiling, replacing worn parts, cleaning, etc. This function ensures that there are no unexpected breaks in production.MarketingThe Marketing department is responsible for the growth of the company by getting word of the company’s existence and the value it provides to its customers. The functions of the marketing department are explained below;Strategy: The senior members of the marketing team are responsible for drafting and getting approval of a marketing strategy for the company, based on its overall goals and missions before cascading this strategy throughout the department and creating g oals based on it.Market Research: The Marketing department must have full knowledge of the market the company is operating in including the strengths and weaknesses of the product according to the customer, potential competitors in the market to whom the company may lose market share or weaker competitors from whom company can get market share.Product Development: The marketing team works in conjunction with the product development team constantly. This is done by identifying possible gap areas in the market for which the company can develop a product to address an unmet need. They are the ones with their fingers on the customer pulse and are a source of insight into consumer needs and feelings. Once the product is developed, the marketing team is also involved in pricing the product.Communications: The marketing team is responsible for all communication to go out in the market regarding the product. The nature of this communication varies from press releases to online product revie ws, advertisements, e-mails, etc.Sales Support: Marketing also works closely with the Sales team by providing them with customer leads, as well as promotional materials for potential customers.Events: Marketing is also responsible for organizing and executing events such as seminars, product launches, exhibitions, etc. they will typically call key or prospective customers to such events as well.Sales Customer ServicesSales and customer service play a key role in the purchase and post purchase behavior and experience of your customer. This department is key to ensuring that you build a cadre of repeat customers who will become your advocates in the market and drive more business in through word of mouth. Conversely, these customers can also be extremely vocal if they have suffered a bad customer experience with you and can just as easily drive business away. Hence, one of the most crucial weapons in your arsenal is your sales and customer services team. They fulfill the following re sponsibilities on behalf of your company;Handling Problems: Customer service representatives generally spring into action when customers call in with complaints. The breadth of their authority is dependant on company policy but their core task is to ensure that when an irate customer calls, they do everything, within the scope of their job description, to leave him happy or satisfied when he hangs up. Some customer representatives are empowered to solve the problem on the spot by providing a replacement or returning the money. Others may act as gatekeepers who take information and then route it to the relevant departments.Assisting in Sales: Customer representatives are also depended upon to help increase the sales of the organization. They may do this by educating customers on the value propositions the product offers. Others may use upselling by telling customers who call in to upgrade their services for improved quality.Clerical Tasks: some companies may include administrative an d clerical tasks within the ambit of the role of the customer services representative. So representatives may be routing calls to relevant support departments, maintaining a record of customer accounts including new customers and recording any changes that may occur in these accounts.Job Specific Responsibilities: though the general spirit of the role remains the same, the details may vary according to the organizational context and industrial realities facing the organization. Hence a customer services representative at an FMCG company may be responsible for a big account like Metro. A customer representative at a bank may also be doing some duties that a bank teller typically does such as counting money, etc.CATEGORIES FOR KEY ACTIVITIESProductionThese activities are generally a characteristic of manufacturing firms and entail the design, creation and delivery of significant quantities of the product.For a company that manufactures and sells pantyhose, typical value propositions a re listed below;This pantyhose lasts longer and, therefore, saves consumers the money they would spend on frequent replacements.It provides resistance, so feet don’t slip in heels.The product is machine washable.Easy to store packaging.The Key activities would then be;Control of production and manufacturing;Manage website, online orders and the distribution of the product;Create a branding strategy;Marketing and promotion of the product;Product and packaging design.Problem-solvingSome consumers or customers have chronic problems. Organizations that list problem-solving as a main activity are usually aiming to find unique solutions to these individual problems. Consultancies, hospitals, and most service organizations typically are trying to solve customer problems uniquely. These organizations are characterized by lots of knowledge management and a focus on continuous learning.Jiffy Lube is a chain of over 200 businesses in North America which offers oil change and other automotive services to its clientele. Hence, it is a service firm that aims to provide a solution to a recurring problem its target customers may have. Jiffy’s value propositions are:Keep cars healthy;Keep clothes clean and garages tidy;Save customers’ time and help them avoid the hassle of their cars breaking down.Based on these, the key activities performed at Jiffy can be as follows;Change the oil of cars;Perform other maintenance work;Promote their services to customers through upselling and other marketing activities.Such organizations will have detailed records on repair work done on the automobiles of their repeat customers and will be able to handle the car with full knowledge of its history, much like a doctor with a regular patient.Platform/ networkA business model where the platform is a key resource usually has platform or network-related key activities. Networks, brands, and software can all be a part of a platform or network-related business.Agile Enterprise Architecture or AEA offers its services to companies experiencing a surge of work or a cascade of models that need to be done within a limited amount of time. The company’s value propositions are as follows;Low-cost architecture modeling;Agile and available when needed by customers;In the cloud;Its environmentally friendly especially if the client company is willing to forego travel;Efficient and effective;Involves minimal risk.Based on these the key activities for this organization are;Cloud-based architectural modeling as a service;Cloud-based enterprise architecture software as a service;Frequent health checks for the architecture to make sure it remains robust with changing environment.CASE STUDY LINKEDIN © Entrepreneurial Insights based on the concept of Alex OsterwalderIn this article, we will look at the “Key Activities” block in the Business Model Canvas. We will cover, 1) an introduction to key activities, 2) questions to consider, 3) typical activities, 4) categories for key activities, and 5) a case study on LinkedIn.KEY ACTIVITIESAs the title suggests, these are the most important tasks a company must carry out in order to fulfill its business purpose. To be successful, a company must carry out key actions that are primarily dictated by its business model. As we studied with the key resources building block, key activities are similarly pivotal in an organization fulfilling its value proposition, reaching its customer segments, sustain its customer relationships and ultimately create long-term revenue streams. Key activities are different according to the business model of the organization carrying out the activity. Hence, an organization that relies heavily on its 3rd pa rty contracts will list channel management as a key activity. A product-driven business will lend more significance to activities such as continuous research to understand their users better as well as constant innovation in technology.Hence, it is safe to assume that a key activity for software giant Microsoft is Software Development; similarly, for computer manufacturer Dell, supply chain management may be a key activity, and a consulting business like McKinsey probably lists solving client problems as its key activity.QUESTIONS TO CONSIDERWhen evaluating your business through the Key Activities building block it is essential that you take a holistic view of the business and evaluate related building blocks as well, to understand how they will contribute to your key activities.Based on our value propositions, what kinds of activities are key to our business?What kinds of activities are key to our distribution channels?What kinds of activities are important if we want to maintain o ur customer relationships?What kinds of activities are fundamental to our revenue streams?Our Value Propositions will obviously have the most profound impact on the kind of activities we carry out. However, as the business flourishes, we may begin to include unnecessary activities within this block as well. To prevent this, we use a method called the Minimum Viable Product or MVP, which is the most basic version of your product made through a single cycle of the build, measure and learn loop. Most entrepreneurs will resist the Minimum Viable Product because everyone believes that for a product to be a success, it must provide maximum value to its customers. This brings us back to the Customer Segment and Value Proposition building blocks where we learnt that we have to be selective about the customers we target and the kind of value we provide by relieving their pains and giving them gains. Creating a bloated product with tons of extra feature that are of no value to your customer b ut which add to his investment, is not the way to go. A product is a combination of its form and function, function being what it does and form detailing how it does it. This form is crucial to the customer experience and helps in determining the key activities. Similarly, the kind of customer relationship you want establish will also entail certain key activities to bring it about and so on.TYPICAL ACTIVITIESAs mentioned earlier the Key activities building block creates a bridge between your value propositions and the customer segments’ needs. Some typical key activities that are commonly practiced by most organizations are listed below;Research DevelopmentThe research and development department is required to liaise with all other functions of the company whether it be production, marketing or sales. The typical functions of a research department are mentioned below;New Product Research: Before a new product can be produced, it must first go through the research and development department which will explore what the design of the product should be, the expected production costs and how long it will take to produce sufficient amounts of the product. RD also looks into how much customers want or need the product.New Product Development: the research phase naturally leads to the product being developed due to the results achieved from the research phase.Existing Product Updates: RD must also look into existing products to see if they require an upgrade based on evolving consumer needs or new entrants into the product category in the market. These changes can additionally be attributed to product glitches that need resolving.Quality Checks: Companies can ask their RD departments to conduct quality checks or they may require the department to collaborate with the Quality Assurance team since they are well versed in the specifications of the product and are ideal for evaluating whether all products are up to the quality standards set by the company.Innovation: The RD team is also responsible for keeping an eye on innovations and new trends within the industry and ensuring that their product stays abreast of these trends.ProductionProduction management consists of a number of activities which are outlined below;Selection of product and design: the first step is to select the right product and the right design for the product. This is a crucial decision because the combination of the right product (Value Proposition) and the right design (Key Activities)will dictate the success or the failure of the company. Value engineering and value analysis are parts of this activity.Selection of Production Process: this stage consists of deciding what production process the organization will be using including the right technology, machines, inventory management system, etc.Selecting Right Production Capacity: The production management must have full knowledge of the expected demand for the product and set the production capacity accordingly, since eit her a dearth or a surplus of the product may lead to problems for the company. Break-even analysis is the most popular tool used by production managers to predict capacity.Production Planning: The production manager must decide on the routing and scheduling of the product. Routing is aimed at creating a smooth flow of work by discovering the easiest and most economical flow of work. Scheduling, on the other hand, refers to the timing of activities by mentioning a start and end time for each.Production Control: The production manager is also responsible for monitoring and controlling the production process. This is done by comparing planned production with actual production, exploring deviations if any and ultimately correcting these deviations to meet planned production.Quality and Cost Control: In today’s economically driven world, consumers won’t the maximum quality for the cheapest price and access to the internet and a world of options make them more discerning and fickle. H ence, it falls on the production manager to not only ensure that he is continuously improving the quality of the product but also to reduce costs so their product can remain competitive in the market in terms of price.Inventory Control: Inventory Control is fundamental to a production driven business because it prevents overstocking or understocking. Overstocking means the company will be spending more money on materials that will ultimately go to waste. Understocking will effect production and result in late deliveries.Maintenance and Replacement of Machines: The production manager must be on top of the condition of the machines under his function by constantly monitoring them and scheduling regular maintenance like oiling, replacing worn parts, cleaning, etc. This function ensures that there are no unexpected breaks in production.MarketingThe Marketing department is responsible for the growth of the company by getting word of the company’s existence and the value it provides to its customers. The functions of the marketing department are explained below;Strategy: The senior members of the marketing team are responsible for drafting and getting approval of a marketing strategy for the company, based on its overall goals and missions before cascading this strategy throughout the department and creating goals based on it.Market Research: The Marketing department must have full knowledge of the market the company is operating in including the strengths and weaknesses of the product according to the customer, potential competitors in the market to whom the company may lose market share or weaker competitors from whom company can get market share.Product Development: The marketing team works in conjunction with the product development team constantly. This is done by identifying possible gap areas in the market for which the company can develop a product to address an unmet need. They are the ones with their fingers on the customer pulse and are a source of insi ght into consumer needs and feelings. Once the product is developed, the marketing team is also involved in pricing the product.Communications: The marketing team is responsible for all communication to go out in the market regarding the product. The nature of this communication varies from press releases to online product reviews, advertisements, e-mails, etc.Sales Support: Marketing also works closely with the Sales team by providing them with customer leads, as well as promotional materials for potential customers.Events: Marketing is also responsible for organizing and executing events such as seminars, product launches, exhibitions, etc. they will typically call key or prospective customers to such events as well.Sales Customer ServicesSales and customer service play a key role in the purchase and post purchase behavior and experience of your customer. This department is key to ensuring that you build a cadre of repeat customers who will become your advocates in the market and drive more business in through word of mouth. Conversely, these customers can also be extremely vocal if they have suffered a bad customer experience with you and can just as easily drive business away. Hence, one of the most crucial weapons in your arsenal is your sales and customer services team. They fulfill the following responsibilities on behalf of your company;Handling Problems: Customer service representatives generally spring into action when customers call in with complaints. The breadth of their authority is dependant on company policy but their core task is to ensure that when an irate customer calls, they do everything, within the scope of their job description, to leave him happy or satisfied when he hangs up. Some customer representatives are empowered to solve the problem on the spot by providing a replacement or returning the money. Others may act as gatekeepers who take information and then route it to the relevant departments.Assisting in Sales: Customer represen tatives are also depended upon to help increase the sales of the organization. They may do this by educating customers on the value propositions the product offers. Others may use upselling by telling customers who call in to upgrade their services for improved quality.Clerical Tasks: some companies may include administrative and clerical tasks within the ambit of the role of the customer services representative. So representatives may be routing calls to relevant support departments, maintaining a record of customer accounts including new customers and recording any changes that may occur in these accounts.Job Specific Responsibilities: though the general spirit of the role remains the same, the details may vary according to the organizational context and industrial realities facing the organization. Hence a customer services representative at an FMCG company may be responsible for a big account like Metro. A customer representative at a bank may also be doing some duties that a ba nk teller typically does such as counting money, etc.CATEGORIES FOR KEY ACTIVITIESProductionThese activities are generally a characteristic of manufacturing firms and entail the design, creation and delivery of significant quantities of the product.For a company that manufactures and sells pantyhose, typical value propositions are listed below;This pantyhose lasts longer and, therefore, saves consumers the money they would spend on frequent replacements.It provides resistance, so feet don’t slip in heels.The product is machine washable.Easy to store packaging.The Key activities would then be;Control of production and manufacturing;Manage website, online orders and the distribution of the product;Create a branding strategy;Marketing and promotion of the product;Product and packaging design.Problem-solvingSome consumers or customers have chronic problems. Organizations that list problem-solving as a main activity are usually aiming to find unique solutions to these individual proble ms. Consultancies, hospitals, and most service organizations typically are trying to solve customer problems uniquely. These organizations are characterized by lots of knowledge management and a focus on continuous learning.Jiffy Lube is a chain of over 200 businesses in North America which offers oil change and other automotive services to its clientele. Hence, it is a service firm that aims to provide a solution to a recurring problem its target customers may have. Jiffy’s value propositions are:Keep cars healthy;Keep clothes clean and garages tidy;Save customers’ time and help them avoid the hassle of their cars breaking down.Based on these, the key activities performed at Jiffy can be as follows;Change the oil of cars;Perform other maintenance work;Promote their services to customers through upselling and other marketing activities.Such organizations will have detailed records on repair work done on the automobiles of their repeat customers and will be able to handle the car with full knowledge of its history, much like a doctor with a regular patient.Platform/ networkA business model where the platform is a key resource usually has platform or network-related key activities. Networks, brands, and software can all be a part of a platform or network-related business.Agile Enterprise Architecture or AEA offers its services to companies experiencing a surge of work or a cascade of models that need to be done within a limited amount of time. The company’s value propositions are as follows;Low-cost architecture modeling;Agile and available when needed by customers;In the cloud;Its environmentally friendly especially if the client company is willing to forego travel;Efficient and effective;Involves minimal risk.Based on these the key activities for this organization are;Cloud-based architectural modeling as a service;Cloud-based enterprise architecture software as a service;Frequent health checks for the architecture to make sure it remains robust with cha nging environment.CASE STUDY LINKEDINLinkedIn is one of the world’s premier business networking websites. The value propositions it provides to its customers are as follows;Manage professional profile and build a robust professional network;Target and reach the right talent;Communicated with the right audience;Access to LinkedIn database though API’s and widgets.As you can see LinkedIn is a platform/ network based company characterized by a high focus on providing sharing capabilities to its customers. The Key activities performed at LinkedIn would then be;Platform DevelopmentHence, LinkedIn spends a majority of its budget and time in ensuring that its platform remains scalable and usable as the consumer base grows rapidly.

Martin Luther And The Eighty Five Theses On The Power And...

Pearl Wong English 11 Period 2 05.18.16 Martin Luther and the Ninety-Five Theses The Ninety-five Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences came about as the result of a single controversy in the Catholic Church, and ended up becoming the basis of a split in Christianity. This influential document was one theological professor’s response to the sale of indulgences, a practice long supported by Catholic leaders. Indulgences were a way to lessen punishment after sin. Martin Luther was livid at the thought of people buying their way to salvation, as it contradicted his strong belief that redemption was determined by faith, and that the Bible was the ultimate religious authority, as opposed to the Pope. On a pilgrimage to Rome, Luther witnessed flocks of peasants spending their life savings on indulgences for their dead relatives. At the monastery, Luther struggled to find peace with God; his superior, Johann von Staupitz, chose not to counsel him out of the order. Instead, he sent Luther to study for his doctorate and assume the Doctor in Bible at the University of Wittenberg. While teaching at Wittenberg, Luther continued to develop his theological and philosophical perspective, resulting in his revelatory â€Å"tower experience.† Meanwhile, Friar Johann Tetzel began to sell indulgences in Germany to raise funds to renovate St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, prompting Luther to preach against Tetzel. To counter Tetzel, Luther composed the â€Å"Disputation on the Power andShow MoreRelatedOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesdetermining beginnings and endings that accord with major shifts in political and socioeconomic circumstances and dynamics rather than standard but arbitrary chronological break points. In the decades that followed the Great War, the victorious European powers appeared to have restored, even expanded, their global political and economic preeminence only to see it eclipsed by the emergence of the Soviet and U.S. superpowers on their periphery and a second round of even more devastating global conflict.

Affirmative Action Necessary or Unnecessary Essay

Affirmative Action was centered around 1961 because women and minorities were being discriminated against. By definition, affirmative action is â€Å"the encouragement of increased representation of women and minority-group members, especially in employment† (Dictionary.com). The main controversy of affirmative action is whether or not it is still necessary, and if it should be abolished all together. It was originally intended to benefit cultural groups that were thought to suffer from discrimination in the past, however, now some people believe that those cultural groups are already being represented to the fullest extent, and that affirmative action is no longer necessary. On the other hand, other people believe that affirmative action†¦show more content†¦However, what they want people to know is that African Americans are helped by fourteen percent due to affirmative action (Figure 1). People are split over whether affirmative action reduces the effects of the past discrimination, or if it does not do anything at all, and just aggravates people; Americans are bringing up new aspects of the effects of affirmative action. Affirmative action may not have helped African Americans quite as much as women. â€Å"Blacks continue to have twice the unemployment rate of whites† (Pritchett), and â€Å"only thirty-five percent of all African Americans high school graduates attend college versus the fifty percent of white students† (Pritchett). Others believe this means affirmative action is not helping the African Americans, and is still causing discrimination. â€Å"During the time of slavery, African Americans were not given an equal opportunity to establish jobs or a good education, setting them back in the modern market† (SocialistWorker.org). Another common concern with lots of controversy is the effects of affirmative action on reverse racism. Caucasian students have been complaining for years because they believe th ey were cheated out of a fair chance to have aShow MoreRelatedAda and Affirmative Action Essay1000 Words   |  4 PagesADA and Affirmative Action The United States of America is a culturally diverse place. There are people from all over the world living in here. There are people from different cultures, people with different religious and moral standards and beliefs, and people from different races and of different ethnicities. There are also people living amongst us that face special circumstances such as being physically or mentally disabled, challenged by a chronic illness or even sexual orientation. ThroughoutRead MoreWhy We Still Need Affirmitive Action1493 Words   |  6 PagesWhy we still need affirmative action Because of the complex nature of the discussion on affirmative action and the controversies and the emotion surrounding it, it is imperative to first recap on the causes of race and inequality in the United States of America. The policies on affirmative action were proposed as a fractional remedy for the socio-economic impacts of past and present disadvantage faced by certain groups in the population, especially with regard to biases on gender and race. Such disadvantagesRead MoreAffirmative Action Is Important For Society1649 Words   |  7 Pages Affirmative action Affirmative action is an attempt to address past discriminatory injustices which may be based on gender, race or ethnicity. Affirmative action may take the form of policies and programs which are mostly mandated by governments and designed to bring changes in organizations, companies and educational institutions. Affirmative action is a vital tool which provides qualified people with equal access to educational or professional opportunities that they would otherwise have beenRead MoreAffirmative Action And Its Effects On Affirmative1263 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout America there are many different views on the effects of affirmative action. Many see it as a negative policy which gives an unnecessary advantage to minorities in America. In a 2009 Pew Poll, â€Å"58% of African Americans agree† and only â€Å"22% whites agree† that there should be â€Å"preferential treatment to improve the position of blacks and other minorities† (Public Backs Affirmative Actio n†). Today affirmative action and other racial injustices tend to be in the spotlight quite often, suchRead MoreAffirmative Action: Social Policy1348 Words   |  6 PagesAffirmative Action Affirmative action is a social policy created to promote the welfare of minorities by supporting the idea that individuals are all created equal and should not be judged by race or gender. Therefore, in situations like job and university applications, we should consider minorities to be as feasible a choice for hire as a white male candidate, taking into consideration their background. In short, it tries to give minorities that have been at a disadvantage their whole life, anRead More Affirmative Action Is Not the Solution Essay1340 Words   |  6 Pagesnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Affirmative action is a social policy created to promote the welfare of minorities by supporting the idea that individuals are all created equal and should not be judged by race or gender. Therefore, in situations like job and university applications, we should consider minorities to be as feasible a choice for hire as a white male candidate, taking into consideration their background. In short, it tries to give minorities that have been at a disadvantage their wholeRead MoreEssay on History and Opinions on the Policy of Affirmative Action1725 Words   |  7 Pages is Affirmative Action. The basic goal of these policies is to increase opportunities for minorities in the United States job market and educational system. Yet one might also question if these policies actually decrease discrimination or increase the inequality gap between the dominate white group and the minority African American group? What benefits do we really gain from Affirmative Action? In order to answer these and other questions, we must first fully understand what Affirmative ActionRead More Its Time to Put and End to Affirmative Action Essay1586 Words   |  7 Pages Affirmative action should be changed or ended altogether In the late Sixties, Martin Luther King Jr. fought hard for equal rights. Before he was assassinated in 1968, he made a speech about his vision of human equality. â€Å"I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.† (King) The Sixties were a turning point for racial equality. Because of leaders like King, many blacks and minorityRead More1. The two major Supreme Court decisions need to be identified, which are related to student to1300 Words   |  6 Pagesclarify whether the standards set in Gebser apply to harassment cases regarding student to student harassment. The court ruled that the standards which Gebser set do apply to student harassment by another student. Davis does expand the criteria necessary to hold an institution liable for harassment. Gebser set the following criteria: 1. An official must have had â€Å"actual knowledge† of the harassment and the official must have the authority to enforce corrective measures to halt the harassmentRead MoreAffirmative Action Should Be Changed or Ended All Together1605 Words   |  7 PagesAffirmative action should be changed or ended altogether In the late Sixties, Martin Luther King Jr. fought hard for equal rights. Before he was assassinated in 1968, he made a speech about his vision of human equality. I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. (King) The Sixties were a turning point for racial equality. Because of leaders like King, many blacks and minority

The age of the entrepreneur has arrived Free Essays

We are living in an age of entrepreneurship. When Bill Gates, the founder and CEO of Microsoft or Anita Roddick, founder of the Body Shop seem to be better known around the world than most heads of state, one might conclude that the age of the entrepreneur has arrived. Entrepreneurs of large multinational corporations have had a distinctly important role in shaping today’s process of globalization. We will write a custom essay sample on The age of the entrepreneur has arrived or any similar topic only for you Order Now The term â€Å"entrepreneurship† has historically referred to the efforts of an individual who takes on the odds in translating a vision into a successful business enterprise (Collins Moore, 1964; Hebert Link, 1988). More recently, however, entrepreneurship has been conceptualized as a process that can occur in organizations of all sizes and types, such as the public sector, and non-profit organization (Burgelman, 1983; Gartner, 1985; Kao, 1989; Miller, 1983). In this paper, the author will use the case of Michael Young, Lord Young of Dartington, to discuss how useful is the notion of the ‘social entrepreneur’ and how different is such a concept from the more traditional portrayal of the private sector entrepreneur. The story of Michael Young Michael Young, one of Britain foremost social entrepreneurs, has died aged 86. Lord Young of Dartington leaves behind dozens of institutions and charities which he either was founder, or played a major hand in creating including the Consumers Association and the Open University. He was an innovative and progressive thinker in political and social policy (Briggs2001). By any standard, Young must count as one of the most fecund and versatile figures of British life. As head of the Labour Party’s research department and one of the people who drafted its manifesto in 1945, he helped craft the terms of the post-war settlement. His seminal study of family and kinship in London’s East End gave social inquiry a new direction. He was a prime mover in the development of the Consumers’ Association, the Open University, the Social Science Research Council, the University of the Third Age and, most recently, the School of Social Entrepreneurs. For nearly 60 years, Young has fertilised British life with new ideas and new institutions. Yet he is also one of the authors of a reactionary orthodoxy that lies on British politics and education with the weight of a corpse (Briggs2001). His many dragon seeds have included starting the Advisory Centre for Education, which provided information on education issues (1960); the National Consumer Council (1975); the University of the Third Age, or U3A (1982); the Open College of the Arts, which taught practical arts by correspondence (1987); the National Association for the Education of Sick Children (1993); a Family Covenant Association, for promoting a secular form of Baptism (1994); and the School for Social Entrepreneurs (1998) (Gray2001) The nature of entrepreneurship According to Collins, Moore, (1964), the entrepreneur was defined as ‘a risk-taker – a man who braves uncertainty, strikes out on his own, and, through native wit, devotion ot duty, and singleness of purpose, somehow creates business and industrial activity where none existed before’. In a 21st century business context, and largely as lay people understand it, entrepreneur typically refers to ‘a person who undertakes or controls a business or enterprise and bears the risk of profit or loss’ (Brown 1993), Underlying entrepreneurial attitudes and behaviors are three key dimensions: innovativeness, risk taking, and proactiveness (Covin Slevin, 1989; Miller, 1983; Morris Sexton, 1996). Innovativeness refers to the seeking of creative, unusual, or novel solutions to problems and needs. These solutions take the form of new technologies and processes, as well as new products and services. Risk taking involves the willingness to commit significant resources to opportunities having a reasonable chance of costly failure. These risks are typically moderate and calculated. Proactiveness is concerned with implementation, with doing what is necessary to bring an entrepreneurial concept to fruition. It usually involves considerable perseverance, adaptability, and a willingness to assume responsibility for failure. To the extent that an undertaking demonstrates some amount of innovativeness, risk taking, and proactiveness, it can be considered an entrepreneurial event, and the person behind it an entrepreneur. Further, any number of entrepreneurial events can be produced in a given time period (Stevenson Jarillo, 1990). Accordingly, entrepreneurship is not an either/or determination, but a question of â€Å"degree† and â€Å"frequency.† Organizations can be characterized, then, in terms of their entrepreneurial orientation or â€Å"intensity,† which is a reflection both of how many entrepreneurial things they are doing, and how innovative, risky, and proactive those things tend to be. By dissecting the critical elements of entrepreneurship, we are able to highlight the essential ingredients for society to nurture, cultivate and value. It also frees the term for use in non-business, non-profit-seeking ventures. It blurs the boundaries between the business and social sectors in potentially useful ways as well and foreshadows a cultural shift in what we value. And Casson (1995) notes that entrepreneurship can be a distributed process across the public/private divide. He (1995) argues: â€Å"The public sector and the private sector therefore offer two distinct channels of advancement for the entrepreneur. The rewards to entrepreneurship in the public sector come more in the form of status rather than of income, of course. The difference between the social entrepreneur and the private sector entrepreneur a). The different mission. Compare to the private sector entrepreneur, social entrepreneurs has the different mission (Ackerman1996). Social entrepreneurs play the role of change agents in the social sector, by adopting a mission to create and sustain social value, not just private value. For social entrepreneurs, the social mission is explicit and central. This obviously affects how social entrepreneurs perceive and assess opportunities. Mission-related impact becomes the central criterion, not wealth creation. Wealth is just a means to an end for social entrepreneurs. With business entrepreneurs, wealth creation is a way of measuring value creation. This is because business entrepreneurs are subject to market discipline, which determines in large part whether they are creating value. If they do not shift resources to more economically productive uses, they tend to be driven out of business. b). Different measurements to value creation. In the modern market, the value created by private sector entrepreneur can be clearly calculated by the market value. Whereas, it is inherently difficult to measure social value creation (Dees 1998). How much social value is created by reducing pollution in a given stream, by saving the spotted owl, or by providing companionship to the elderly? The calculations are not only hard but also contentious. Even when improvements can be measured, it is often difficult to attribute them to a specific intervention. Are the lower crime rates in an area due to the Block Watch, new policing techniques, or just a better economy? Even when improvements can be measured and attributed to a given intervention, social entrepreneurs often cannot capture the value they have created in an economic form to pay for the resources they use. Defining Social Entrepreneurship Although the growing attention devoted to the phenomenon, there have not a generally accepted definition of public/social sector entrepreneurship to emerge. Many of prior studies provided the definition of social entrepreneurship. Such as Bellone Goerl (1992) social entrepreneurship is an active approach to administrative responsibility that includes generating new sources of revenue, providing enhanced services, and helping to facilitate increased citizen education and involvement. Osborne Gaebler (1992) state it as a continuous attempt to apply resources in new ways so as to heighten the efficiency and effectiveness of public institutions. Linden (1990) concluded it as the purposeful and organized search for innovative changes in public sector organizations and operations. Base on such prior studies, Dees (1998) stated social entrepreneurs play the role of change agents in the social sector, by: * Adopting a mission to create and sustain social value (not just private value), * Recognizing and relentlessly pursuing new opportunities to serve that mission, * Engaging in a process of continuous innovation, adaptation, and learning, * Acting boldly without being limited by resources currently in hand, and * Exhibiting a heightened sense of accountability to the constituencies served and for the outcomes created. Dees (1998) also mentioned this is clearly an â€Å"idealized† definition. Social sector leaders will exemplify these characteristics in different ways and to different degrees. The closer a person gets to satisfying all these conditions, the more that person fits the model of a social entrepreneur. Those who are more innovative in their work and who create more significant social improvements will naturally be seen as more entrepreneurial. The truly Schumpeterian social entrepreneurs will significantly reform or revolutionize their industries. In sum, social entrepreneurship extends the definition of entrepreneurship by its emphasis on ethical integrity and maximizing social value rather than private value or profit. How Michael Young fits the model of a social entrepreneur? To consider how far that Michael Young was entrepreneurial? It is better to consider who closer Michael Young gets to satisfying all such conditions mentioned in the last section. Also Brazeal and Herbert (1999A) stated the way of viewing entrepreneurship is to recognize that entrepreneurship is enabled by the current or potential existence of something new (an innovation), new ways of looking at old problems (Creativity), or the lessened capability of prior processes or solutions to respond effectively to new problem parameters brought on by new or emerging external conditions (environmental change), which can supplant or be complementary to existing processes or solutions (a change), when championed by one or more invested individuals (the innovator). In the follow, some attributions of Michael Young are listed, and it is clear that Michael Young is a successful social entrepreneurial. Young often turned personal experience into new opportunities for social action (Gary 2001). While in hospital with cancer, he devised the idea of the College of Health (and with his sense of provocative fun, he originally called it the Association of Trained Patients). While organizing the funeral of his wife, he saw the need to improve the training of funeral directors, and so he established the National Funerals College. When he discovered that Bengali patients at the London Hospital were unable to explain to doctors what was wrong with them he launched a telephone exchange offering instant translation services. His energy seemed unstoppable, and even into his late seventies he was publishing books and creating even more organizations. Young created an alternative vision of education (Briggs2001). His views on education were often controversial, and heavily influenced by his time spent as a young man at the alternative school at Dartington Hall. The school was based on the philosophy of Rousseau who held the belief that all children were born gifted in one way or another and needed only to be fed and watered, like plants, for their gifts to grow. Michael Young re-stated the egalitarian vision (Gary 2001). He stated where we to evaluate people, not only according to their intelligence and their education, their occupations and their power, but according to their kindliness and their courage, their imagination and sensitivity, their sympathy and generosity, there would be no overall inequalities of the sort we have got used to. Who would be able to say that the scientist was superior to the porter with admirable qualities as a father, the civil servant to the lorry-driver with unusual skills at growing roses? In sum up, Michael Young has undoubtedly been a great innovator, and the greatest social entrepreneur in the UK. The valuation created by Michael Young is significant with the private sector entrepreneur. He was an innovative and progressive thinker in political and social policy. How to cite The age of the entrepreneur has arrived, Papers

Telecommunication Act Of 1996 Essays - Bell System,

Telecommunication Act Of 1996 In February of 1996, the U.S. Congress enacted the Telecommunications Act of 1996. The Act was one of the most substantial changes in the regulation of any industry in recent history. The Act replaced all current laws, FCC regulations, and the consent degree and subsequent court rulings under which AT&T was broken into the "baby Bells." It also overruled all existing state laws and prohibited states from introducing new laws. Practically overnight, the telecommunications industry went from a highly regulated and legally restricted monopoly to open competition. Or almost open competition. It has been more than three years since the Act became law, and while we have seen some changes, they have not been as substantial as many analysts, law- makers, and regulators had anticipated. The Act addressed five major areas of telecommunications: 1) Local telephone service, 2) Long distance telephone service, 3) Cable television service, 4) Radio and television broadcasting, 5) Censorship of the internet. The primary goal of the Act was to promote competition for local telephone services, long distance telephone services, and cable TV services. Inter-exchange carriers (IXC) (such as AT&T, Sprint, and MCI) and cable TV companies (such as TCI and Jones Inter-cable) are permitted to offer local telephone service. The "baby Bells" or Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOC) (also called Local Exchange Carriers (LEC) such as BellSouth and Ameritech were permitted to offer long distance telephone services and cable TV services. The RBOC were also permitted to manufacture their own equipment and to offer online information services and electronic publishing (but under tight controls until 2000). Incidentally, electric utility companies, another traditionally highly regulated industry, were permitted to enter the local telephone market. I believe that the Act made the most impact on Local telephone service. Local telephone service had been a regulated monopoly for almost 100 years. Local telephone services are currently controlled by a handful of RBOCs who have not been known for innovation or cost cutting. Under this new Act, local service was now open for competition. Other companies are permitted to build their own local telephone facilities and offer services to customers. However, building entirely new facilities are prohibitively expensive. Under the Act, existing RBOCs would have to offer their telephone services to other companies (e.g., AT&T) at wholesale prices. These other companies will then resell the services to consumers at retail prices in competition with the RBOC. The wholesale prices are set by state regulatory agencies and typically are around 20% under the RBOCs current retail prices (but some states have set them as low as 40% under retail). One of the major concerns of permitting open competition were the very real fear that the profit motive would lead companies to focus on the most profitable markets and avoid the least profitable ones. For example, after deregulation of the airline industry, prices dropped dramatically for large urban centers, but steadily rose for small rural centers. Common sense suggested that the same events would occur in the telephone market. Urban customers would benefit from increased competition while rural customers would see their prices increase sharply to accurately reflect the high cost of providing services in sparsely populated areas. Many of the RBOCs proposed price increases of $10 per month in rural areas. Therefore, the Act contained a universal service requirement, which mandated RBOCs to provide rural and other high-cost areas with similar types and quality of services and technologies that they provide to other areas and to do so at reasonable rates. RBOCs were also required to provide special, less expensive access to schools, hospitals, and libraries. RBOCs (with the exception of small RBOCs) were required to contribute to a universal service fund, which was used to partially subsidize the RBOCs providing services under the universal service requirements. One year after the Act was passed the expected competition for local telephone service had not materialized. The RBOCs launched several court challenges and managed to delay any real changes. Several cable TV companies have test marketed local telephone service, but none have committed to providing full scale services; most have quietly terminated plans to enter the market after unsuccessful test-marketing. Similarly, most telephone companies have quietly terminated plans to provide video to their customers. Most analysts expected the Big Three IXCs (AT&T, MCI, and Sprint) to quickly charge into the local telephone market. Sprint has made small moves also providing cellular telephone services in five urban areas. AT&T has barely begun test-marketing the reselling of RBOC services in California -- although it claims it will soon begin reselling RBOC services in all 50 states

Plantation and settler colonies

Plantation and settler colonies Introduction Europeans easily defeated all of Africa and managed to separate Africa into minor colonies. A colony is a section of the continent managed by one particular European state. For instance, England managed colonies such as Rhodesia; France controlled nations such as Algeria; Under Imperialism, there were many different types of colonies.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Plantation and settler colonies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This included plantation, settler, occupation and entrepot (Tiffin Ashcroft 2002). This paper will discuss plantation and settler colonies. It will compare and contrast the experience of empires in plantation and settler colonies. In the original imperialism stages, the Europeans aim was to triumph over new lands so as to obtain raw materials which were not accessible in their home country. They also aimed at winning new people to Christianity. Following industrialization, impe rialism of the whites has changed; Imperialists during the post- industrial period looked for raw materials to supply to the factories of the natives while looking for new market places for their already produced goods. This imperialism led to the development of real empires and no empire, however was effectively enough to starve off the penetration of the whites. By the year 1850, the new imperialism established a contest to develop empires overseas (Morgan Hawkins 2006). Discussion Colonialism is the occupation and management of one country by another. The European nations have colonized many world areas for the preceding years. Plantation and settler colonies are two distinct means through which the Europeans developed colonies in the Americans. These were founded on their rationale for colonization. The French established plantation colonies since they were concerned in doing business for furs with the indigenous Americans. Britain was in need of raw materials for its industrie s in the United Kingdom. They, therefore took immense territories of land for cultivation and to use in their industries. They established plantation colonies to satisfy their wants. The British also needed to establish colonies for settlers to arrive and develop new cities that would be governed by the mother nation and pay duties to Britain. These were known as settler colonies (Tiffin Ashcroft 2002). Colonial rule however, differed in distinct ways; the treatment of the indigenous Americans was also different in the varying colonies. The British pressed the resident Americans out of their way to establish the settler and plantation colonies. The French on the other hand, treated their resident Americans well and developed these colonies besides River Mississippi so as to trade moderately (Morgan Hawkins 2006).Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Settler colonies were the firs t colonies; in these colonies, many Europeans migrated to Africa and stayed in colonies. It involved the whites and blacks staying and working subsequently. Plantation colony is an early system of colonization; settlers were planted overseas so as to develop a lasting or semi lasting colonial foundation. In this system, colonies were intended to support the growth of western civilization and Christianity among neighboring natives. This is evident in America and especially in the East Coast Plantations (Fredrickson 1988). Plantation colonies were the economical foundation of most of the American colonies. The climax of these plantation colonies was in the 18th century particularly the sugar farms in Caribbean that relied on slave labor and in this case, Britain flourished as the leading slaving state in the Atlantic globe. Slaves were transferred to the Caribbean farms between the year 1690 and 1807. Since the life of slavery on these plantations was ruthless and slaves demised witho ut having children, a steady supply of slaves was necessary; these slaves were obtained from Africa to sustain the plantation economy. There was a decreasing slave population, but in the year 1840, the slaves exceeded the whites. They supplied all the physical labor and this labor led to a spectacular change in the feeding habits of Britons. For instance, the Europeans used four sugar pounds in the year 1700, by the year 1800, this had increased to 16. The bedrock of plantation colonies was agriculture, especially the cultivation of cash crops. Slaves (Tiffin Ashcroft 2002). In settler colonies, the Europeans acquired the fertile African lands and were concerned with making lots of money from these African territories. They however did not want to carry out the hard works associated to it and they therefore made the natives to carry out these tasks on their behalf. In some settler colonies, the whites obliged many Africans to construct railway trails via the country; during this ti me, many Africans died due to starvation and ailments. In plantation colonies, the Europeans forced the Africans to pay profound taxes, this was not done in settler colonies. The Africans had to toil for the Europeans so as to make sufficient money to pay the large levies. Europeans therefore became prosperous while the Africans life worsened (Morgan Hawkins 2006). Settler colonialism involved distant family units shifting into a region and having children in that new country. Land was the foremost resource in settler colonies while natural and human resources such as adaptable souls and labor were the key resources in plantation colonies.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Plantation and settler colonies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Settler colonies were long lasting except in the uncommon circumstances of total evacuation. Settlers went to a country to live; they were initiators of political commands and they ca rried with them a different sovereign capability. Settler colonies usually attempted to make the native residents of a nation fade away, they first utilized their labor before making them vanish. Settler colonies have expansively occurred all through even in the primordial times. The Roman Empire frequently set up settler colonies in recently subjugated regions. The colonists in settler colonies were experts of the Roman military who established farming land; these agricultural societies offered bastions of faithful citizens in unfriendly regions of the Empire. They hastened the Romanization practice amidst the conquered communities who were in proximity to them. An example of a settler colony is the colony near the town of Damascus. The modern settlements of Mezze and Deraya also draw their origin from communities established for settlement by the Romans (Morgan Hawkins 2006). Settler colonies were exclusive in nature. In these colonies, settlers took the place of the indigenous p eople in their native lands and this is different from plantation colonies. In settler colonies, the whites sought an enduring stake in their land while in plantation colonies, the whites sought just to utilize the resources of the natives. Another difference between the two colonies is that, in the plantation colonies, the whites concern was aimed at obtaining cheap labor; this was in the beginning via slavery, but with time, it grew to paid labor while in settler colonies, the main concern lay on exceptional control of the new land. In plantation colonies, the economic interest of the whites relied on labor management rather than land management of the colonized populace. The necessity to protect British rule in settler colonies like Australia weakened with time. Settler domination rose and the termination of slavery during the middle decades undermined governments (Morgan Hawkins 2006). Another principal difference between settler colonies and plantation colonies is that settler s had a tendency of living endearingly in settler colonies. By taking ownership of land and farming on it, there was no much contemplation of the settlers going back to their homes. In settler colonies, the occupying Europeans exterminated, dislocated and marginalized the natives to become a popular non indigenous populace.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In plantation colonies, the settlers comprised of a comparatively small but influential assembly of white planters. These were mainly interested in controlling and administering the utilization of resources as well as conserving the geopolitical concern of the municipal state. These rarely remained on following the termination of their mission. Examples of these colonies include Nigeria and India. Though there were many natives in these countries, they were regulated by a distant power. Colonial rule was majorly set up by the arrival of urban settlers in large numbers. These gained power over the regions by discussions with the former inhabitants. They cultivated unproductive and barely populated areas. With time, these metropolitan settlers became large in numbers. The management of these lands was entirely under the settlers with the original residents being resettled in the rural areas. These original residents were not able to stand for themselves politically. Their sovereignty was confined in the reserves. Expansion developments of the settlers totally served their wants. They did not benefit the natives. They only diminished them to paucity and structural reliance (Fredrickson 1988). Because of the aggressive manner in which the natives were opposed to plantation settlers at first, there was no extensive and organized authority to contradict their settler rules. As time passed by, the settlers gradually stopped to identify with their urban nation. They were able to take their own identity for granted. This was different from the new and the native states which they had left. The resulting colonial fight backs were those amongst the whites. The imperial procedure lingered in the new states. This was to continue defeating the former residents and gain land and riches (Mitchell 2000). In settler colonies, the colonial procedure meant complete take over of the new nation. For instance, Australia and New Zealand saw the diminution of their native populations to small alien inferiors. Their duty on the global scale was acting as ethnographic subjects. A confident degree of ambivalence besieged the survival of the natives. The sagacity of displacement incited the recognition that they belonged nowhere. They, therefore, no longer categorized themselves with the state where they initially came from. They also did not make out effortlessly with the original populace. This was especially tricky in settlements where the native inhabitants formed the greater part of the population. An example of this intricacy experienced by the settlers and the natives is South Rhodesia (Fredrickson 1988). Through an optimistic lens, this ambivalence showed that there is finding of a new custom. This neither belonged to the imperial nation from which they originated nor the native customs that they lived besides. As a custom, it was perceptibly of a cross breed nature, with adoptions from previous societies influencing social and artistic constructs. This incl uded verbal communication, finances and education. Plantation colonies were different from settler colonies especially when it comes to the place of women. European ladies were less appreciated in plantation colonies compared to settler colonies. In plantation colonies, women were taken as companions and instruments of reproducing. In settler colonies, the safety and productiveness of women was crucial to the colonial practice. Settler colonies in association with the ambivalence adjoining the situation of the settlers attested to be a fascinating study field. Reactions to empire in settler communities constituted a site of disputing and contradicting claims. This was a range of recognitions and subjectivities which declined to cohere tidily into oppositional post colonialism (Fredrickson 1988). Settler colonies were quite different from plantation colonies. The Europeans practicing plantation colonies were unable to settle since they were fought away by the Africans. Settler coloni es were better for the life of the natives compared to plantation colonies. Racism was highly manifested in plantation colonies than in settler colonies. Only the blacks were slaves in plantation colonies (Mitchell 2000). A similarity between settler and plantation colonies is in the fact that both the Europeans searched for a technique of getting wealthy at the expense of the Africans. In plantation colonies, the Europeans obliged the Africans to cultivate certain crops. The Whites could then trade these crops in other regions of the globe. The Africans grew crops such as cotton and tobacco. The whites would trade these crops at relatively higher charges and benefit from the earned proceeds. Plantation colonies intricate the Africans. They could not provide for their families since they had to cultivate only cash crops. They did not grow food crops for themselves and their families. As the whites became rich, the Africans became shoddier and were not able to supply or nourish their families. It is clear that in, both plantation and settler colonies, the Europeans grew wealthy at the expense of the blacks (Fredrickson 1988). References Fredrickson, M. (1988) The arrogance of race: historical perspectives on slavery, racism, and social inequality. Middletown: Wesleyan University Press Mitchell, G. (2000) Native vs. settler: ethnic conflict in Israel/Palestine, Northern Ireland, and South Africa. Westport: Greenwood Press. Morgan, D. Hawkins, S. (2006) Black Experience and the Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Tiffin, H., Ashcroft, B. (2002 The empire writes back: theory and practice in post-colonial literatures. Routledge: Routledge Publishers.

How the US Federal Budget Process Is Supposed to Work

How the US Federal Budget Process Is Supposed to Work In the fiscal year 2018, the U.S. federal government budget committed to spending up to $4.09 trillion dollars. Based on estimated revenues totaling $3.65 trillion, the government will face a deficit of about $440 billion. Clearly, spending that much taxpayer money requires a carefully thought out and closely followed budget process. The ideals of democracy envision that the federal budget, like all aspects of the federal government, will speak to the needs and beliefs of the majority Americans. Clearly, that is a difficult standard to live up to, especially when it comes to spending nearly four trillion of those Americans’ dollars. To say the least, the federal budget is complicated, with many forces affecting it. There are laws controlling some aspects of the budget process, while other less well-defined influences, like those of the president, Congress, and the often-partisan political system play key roles in deciding how much of your money is spent on what. Over the years of government shutdowns, threats of government shutdowns, and last-minute resolutions passed by Congress to keep the government running, Americans have learned the hard way that the budget process actually operates in a far from perfect world. In a perfect world, however, the annual federal budget process begins in February, ends in October and goes like this: The President’s Budget Proposal Goes to Congress The President’s Budget Proposal informs Congress of the White House’s vision for the three basic elements of U.S. fiscal policy: (1) how much money the government should spend on public needs and programs; (2) how much money the government should take in through taxes and other sources of revenue; and (3) how large a deficit or surplus will result- simply the difference between money spent and money taken in. With much and often heated debate, Congress hacks away at the president’s Budget Proposal to come up with its own version, known as the Budget Resolution. Like any other piece of legislation, the House and Senate versions of the Budget Resolution must match. As a critical part of the budget process, the Congressional Budget Resolution sets spending limits on discretionary government programs for the next 5 years. Congress Creates the Annual Spending Bills The meat of the annual federal budget is, in fact, a set of â€Å"appropriations,† or spending bills distributing the funds allocated in the Budget Resolution among the various government functions. Roughly one-third of the spending authorized by any annual federal budget is â€Å"discretionary† spending, meaning it is optional, as approved by Congress. The annual spending bills approve discretionary spending. Spending for â€Å"entitlement† programs, like Social Security and Medicare is referred to as â€Å"mandatory† spending. A spending bill must be created, debated and passed to fund the programs and operations of each Cabinet-level agency. Per the Constitution, each spending bill must originate in the House. Since the House and Senate versions of each spending bill must be identical, this always becomes the most time-consuming step in the budget process. Congress and the President Approve the Spending Bills Once Congress has passed all of the annual spending bills, the president must sign them into law, and there is no guarantee that will happen. Should the programs or funding levels approved by Congress vary too greatly from those set by the president in his or her Budget Proposal, the president could veto one or all of the spending bills. Vetoed spending bills slow the process greatly. Final approval of the spending bills by the president signals the end of the annual federal budget process. The Federal Budget Calendar It starts in February and is supposed to be finished by October 1, the start of the government’s fiscal year. However, the federal budget process now tends to run behind schedule, requiring the passage of one or more â€Å"continuing resolutions† that keep the basic functions of government running and save us from the effects of a government shutdown.

Den Arts Center Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Den Arts Center - Essay Example This is evident from the fact that gross attendance remains the same each year i.e., 15,000. This also depicts stability of the center, as the center has built up a certain reputation. This includes HRM practices in the areas of recruitment and selection, training, performance appraisal, development of human resource (HR) policies, and maintenance of HR records. (Kotey & Slade, 2005) Today multinational enterprises (MNEs) conduct business in context with being global and follows the slogan "No place to hide", this enables local as well as multinational businesses to keep up the pace in two aspects. First, they emphasize upon their "product" quality to maximize customer satisfaction, secondly they require reshaping their HRM policies and practice accordingly. The Head of Center must hire a manager who possess multidimensional perspective along with multienvironment experience, so that he could realize the need for change in the environment of Den's Arts Center and improve their quality in terms of their performers and services. This is only possible through effective recruiting of artists and performers from different countries. The manager must possess the capability to quickly and easily adapt into the foreign culture, individual with as much cultural mix, diversity, and experience as possible. The manager must possess the ability to indulge into effective people skills in dealing with a variety of cultures, races, nationalities, genders, and religions. This would enable the Arts center to perform more professionally and on an international platform. (Briscoe & Schuler, 2004, p. 238) The Arts Center is lacking global recruitment due to which they are limited to the choice of young people and not the elderly ones. They must enhance thei r capabilities to increase the circle of their target audience to mature people. Whether the local HR manager is from the country of the parent company, from the country of the local subsidiary, or from a third country, he or she is sandwiched between his or her own culture and the 'foreign' cultures of the firm. Human resource managers at the local, regional, and headquarters levels must integrate and coordinate activities taking place in diverse environments with people of diverse backgrounds. And they are usually looked to for expertise in helping other managers be successful in their international endeavors, as well. (Briscoe & Schuler, 2004, p. 27) Den's Arts Center is in desperate need of a change in their policies in umpteen ways. There is a need to hire 'multicultural' trainers including local as well as international drama specialists, drama artists to train and groom their youngsters. They must hire renowned choreographers. Den Arts Center should promote Students' arts, crafts and paintings in their dramas based on 'merit' factor from various primary and secondary schools. This on one hand where provide them with an opportunity for ease of selecting quality work, on the other hand it would motivate the students to perform better. This would help them in future to select trainers from among those talented student individuals, which worked for them in the past. Over the years, as

Spiritual Needs Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Spiritual Needs Questions - Essay Example With the information collected from the investigation, policies and guidelines should also be formulated to help in the implementation of care that is sensitive to these needs. From the above findings, it is clear that there are major spiritual beliefs and inclinations that patients hold that affect the health management of the patients in hospital settings. The above assessment indicates that the reasons that are given by the patients may not make medical sense but remain patients’ rights in the holistic management of the patients. The assessment tool included the religious affiliation to identify the varied nature of religious beliefs that are held owing to differences in the beliefs of Muslims, Christians, Indians and other religions. Equally, different denominations within the same religions also have different beliefs like Protestants and Catholics in Christians. The other questions in the assessment tool were aimed at assessing the knowledge and attitude of the patients to their own beliefs. From the above assessment, the patient appeared to have a good grip of the requirements that her belief system require. The attitude of the patients is that she has a predisposition and liking for these beliefs. In turn, these cause the patients attitude to be negative towards many health practices. The tool also included a question that was aimed at assessing the attitude of the health practitioner towards the spiritual dispositions of the patients. Evidently, most health practitioners are not concerned with the spiritual beliefs of the patients and how they affect their recovery. It is evident that there were no questions allowing the validation of the information given by the patient. The reason is that the tool of assessment did not have a prelude of the religion and the denomination of the patient. As such, all the information obtained is given on the assumption of truth telling on the part of the patient and that the patient adequately knows the

Wuthering Heights :: Essays Papers

WUTHERING HEIGHTS MAIN CHARACTERS Catherine Earnshaw ~ She is the daughter of Mr. Earnshaw and the sister of Hindley. She is also Heathcliff’s foster sister. Heathcliff and Catherine are in love, but she marries Edgar Linton instead. When Cathy died, she wanted both Heathcliff and Edgar to suffer because Edgar never understood why she loved Heathcliff and Heathcliff because he never knew why she married Edgar. Catherine Linton ~ She is the daughter of the older Catherine and Edgar Linton. Her mother Catherine died shortly after she was born. She married Linton Heathcliff and became Catherine Heathcliff. Then after her husband’s death she married Harenton and became Catherine Earnshaw. Mr. Earnshaw ~ He was a farmer and father of Hindley and Catherine. He is a kind- hearted man who takes Heathcliff in after he found him lying on the street, although his family protested he still took him in. Edgar Linton ~ He is Isabella’s older brother, who marries Catherine Earnshaw and is the father of there daughter, Catherine Linton. He is a gentle bred, refined man, a patient husband and loving father. Ellen Dean ~ Ellen is one of the main narrators. She has been a servant for the Linton’s and Earnshaw’s all her life. She knows all of them better than any one else. People that are close to her call her Nelly. Frances Earnshaw ~ She is Hindley’s wife. She was a rather giddy woman. She displayed a great fear of death, which tells us why she died of tuberculosis. Harenton Earnshaw ~ Harenton is the son of Frances and Hindley Earnshaw. He marries young Catherine and grows up with his Uncle Heathcliff; his both mother and father die. He is ruff and uncultured having been kept from civilization from so long by Heathcliff. The Wuthering Heights belongs to Harenton even though Heathcliff runs the household. Hindley Earnshaw ~ Is the only son of Mr. and Mrs. Earnshaw, he is also Catherine’s older brother. He becomes a violent alcoholic after his beloved wife Frances dies. Also Hindley never got along with Heathcliff because Hindley felt rejected from his father’s affection, because Heathcliff the favorite child of Mr. Earnshaw. Heathcliff ~ He is taken in by Mr. Earnshaw and raised along with Catherine and Hindley. Catherine was a moving force in his life, and he hated all those who stood between him and his beloved Cathy. However, he was of unknown descendants and was found in Liverpool starving on the streets.

Optic Radiation In Optic Neuritis Health And Social Care Essay

ABSTRACT. Optic neuritis ( ON ) is defined as an redness of the ocular nervus and provides a utile theoretical account for analyzing the effects of inflammatory demyelination of white affair. The purpose of this survey was to measure the diffusion changes both of the ocular nervus and ocular radiation in patients with acute and chronic ON utilizing diffusion tensor MR imagination ( DT-MRI ) . Thirty-three patients with idiopathic demyelinating ocular neuritis ( IDON ) and 33 gender- and age-matched healthy controls were examined with DT-MRI, T1- and T2-weighted MRI. Compared with controls, both first episode and recurrent patients with IDON in the ague phase showed significantly increased radial diffusivity ( I »aS? ) and decreased average fractional anisotropy ( FA ) in the affected nervousnesss. Reduced FA, increased I »aS? , average diffusivity ( MD ) and axial diffusivity ( I »a ) were determined in patients with subacute IDON. We found no important difference in the direct ional diffusivity of ocular radiation in patients whose disease had lasted less than one twelvemonth compared with healthy controls. However, important alterations of FA and I »aS? of the ocular radiation were detected in patients with disease continuance more than one twelvemonth. These consequences show the great potency and capacity of DT-MRI steps as really utile biomarkers and indexs for the rating of myelin hurt in the ocular tract. Ocular nervus sheath dilation can be detected utilizing conventional T2-weighted MRI as has been reported by Hickman et Al. [ 2-3 ] . These two surveies assessed the effects of a individual inflammatory procedure and its attach toing demyelination in a cohort of patients during their first episode of acute one-sided ON, and reported a consistent form of alterations associated with demyelination lesions caused by redness in the ocular nervus. It is of great clinical importance to find prodromic alterations and the implicit in pathological mechanisms in patients with ON. However, since the hyperintensity can be a consequence of either redness, gliosis or axonal devolution, T2-weighted images fail to place the cause underlying the pathology. Diffusion tensor MR imagination ( DT-MRI ) , a widely recognized imagination technique that identifies the dominant way of H2O diffusion and the magnitude of anisotropy in vivo [ 4 ] has late gained more prominence for the probe of white affair cons truction, unity and connectivity. The demyelination harm in the ocular nervus and ocular radiation can be located with the aid of DT-MRI parametric quantities, such as average diffusivity ( MD ) and fractional anisotropy ( FA ) , axial diffusivity I »a and radial diffusivity I »aS? [ 5-6 ] . Postmortem scrutiny of MS patients suggests that the pathological mechanisms of ON may include a combination of redness, demyelination, astrocytosis and axonal devastation [ 7 ] . Surveies in mouse ocular nervus after retinal ischaemia have revealed elusive alterations of axons and medulla in the white affair and found I »a and I »aS? values to be associated with axonal pathological alterations [ 8-9 ] . These consequences suggest DTI to be superior compared to other conventional imaging techniques for the intent of researching the pathological mechanisms of ON. Particular challenges associated with DT-MRI of the ocular nervus are the little diameter and the nomadic constructions surrounded by CSF and orbital fat [ 10-11 ] . In visible radiation of this, and despite utilizing different sequences and protocols, it is rather singular that several different groups have reported similar values in healthy controls ( MD 1.0-1.3A-10-3 mm2/s and FA 0.4-0.6 ) and altered diffusion paramet ric quantities in chronic ON patients [ 12-13 ] . The different developmental phases of ON seem to be associated with different pathological mechanisms. The acute phase is characterized by redness and perchance demyelination of the ocular nervus. The chronic phase, on the other manus, typically shows axonal harm, perchance even axonal decease taking to wasting of the ocular nervus [ 14-16 ] . Increased MD and decreased FA were observed in a heterogenous cohort of patients with chronic ON [ 17 ] ; increased evident diffusion coefficient ( ADC ) values were found particularly in chronic patients [ 18-19 ] . A survey closely related to our work showed axial diffusivity I »a in the acute phase to supply of import predictive information and the radial diffusivity I »aS? in the subacute phase to stand for the best step correlated with the visus [ 20 ] . A recent survey proved tractography to be a method sensitive plenty to observe pathological abnormalcies in the ocular radiations after ON [ 21 ] . Understanding the connexion between altered diffusion parametric quantities of the ocular nervus, ocular radiation and ocular public presentation will supply insight into the implicit in pathological mechanisms and may be valuable for being able to foretell the ocular development after ON. The old surveies mentioned above, have shown different pathological mechanisms during the different phases of ON and we were interested to corroborate these findings by DT-MRI, a novel and sensitive methodological attack. We hypothesized that the pathological alterations happening during the unwellness might impact the diffusion indices otherwise and that we therefore might happen differing diffusion values in the ague and subacute phases of ON based on the concluding clinical diagnosing. Materials and methods Subjects Thirty-three patients who fulfilled the clinical standards set by the Optic Neuritis Study Group [ 22, 23 ] were recruited from May 2008 to December 2008 at the Beijing Tongren Hospital. The patient group consisted of 12 males and 21 females from 10 to 58 old ages ( average 31.1A ±12.8 old ages ) . The demographic informations assessed during the MRI survey is included in Table 1. Thirty-three gender- and age-matched healthy controls ( 12 male and 21 female, average ages 29.21A ±12.09 old ages ( run 10-60 old ages ) ) with normal neurological scrutiny and no history of neurological upsets served as control topics. Table 1. Demographic and clinical features of patients with IDON Characteristic No of patients Gender Male 12 Female 21 Age ( old ages ) Median 31.1 Range 10-58 Phase of disease ( casesi?†° Acute 33 First 26 Backsliding 7 Subacute 18 First 6 Backsliding 12 In this paper we will further mention to the single eyes of the topics as instances, wholly the survey included 51 instances in the patient group. In 33 instances with acute IDON we managed to obtain the MRI informations within 30 yearss of the oncoming of symptoms. Twenty-six of these instances were first manifestations of the acute signifier of ON, the other 7 were perennial instances. We defined the ON to be acute if a patient experience an episode of ON within 30 yearss from the oncoming of ocular symptoms [ 20, 22, 24 ] . In 18 instances with subacute IDON, the MRI-data was acquired more than 30 yearss after the eruption of the unwellness. Six instances were first episodes and 12 the consequence of a recurrent episodes. At the same clip, we selected 9 topics whose disease had lasted longer than 1 twelvemonth and 14 topics less than 1 twelvemonth to look into the secondary effects to OR. The survey was approved by the moralss commission of the Beijing Tongren Hospital and a written informed consent was obtained from each topic harmonizing to the Declaration of Helsinki. Data acquisition All measurings were performed on a 1.5-T Signa MRI system ( General Electric, Milwaukee, WI, USA ) . Head gesture was minimized by keeping foam tablets provided by the maker. Subjects were asked to shut their eyes in order to minimise any effects of deliberate oculus motion during the acquisition clip. Each topic was scanned utilizing a high declaration T2-weighted ( fluid-attenuated inversion recovery sequences ) FLAIR sequence ( TR=9000ms, TE=120ms, TI=2125ms, field of position ( FOV ) =24A-21cm2, matrix size 256A-222, 32 pieces, 4.0 millimeter piece thickness with 0.8-mm interslice spread ) in order to observe any encephalon abnormalcies. At the clip of the ocular neuritis, the patients had no important image impairment or other marks of neurologic lesions in the ocular radiation. The images of the ocular nervousnesss were obtained with an 8-channel caput spiral utilizing coronal-oblique spin-echo EPI sequence with parallel acquisition. The coronal-oblique pieces were set extraneous to the nervousnesss ( See Fig.1 ) . The covering scope was from the ocular papilla to the orbital vertex of the ocular nervus. We used the undermentioned acquisition parametric quantities for the ocular nervus: one b0 and 6 non-collinear gradient waies with b=600s/mm2, FOV= 22A-22 cm2, matrix size 128A-128, NEX= 16, 8 immediate 5.0 millimeter pieces. By concentrating entirely on the ocular nervus, the signal-noise-ratio ( SNR ) of images was set at 35-40. The diffusion acquisition parametric quantities of the ocular radiation were the undermentioned: one b0 and 15 non-collinear waies with b=1000 s/mm2, TR=6000ms, TI=71ms, FOV = 24A-24cm2, matrix size 128A-128, NEX=6, 22 immediate 4.0 millimeter pieces. In add-on a whole-brain 3D T1 SPGR sequence ( TR=10ms, TE=4.4ms, TI=600ms, FOV=2 6A-26cm2, matrix size=256A-256, NEX=1, 152 immediate 1.0-mm pieces ) was used as a beginning image for the subsequent co-registration of the ocular radiation. Figure 1. Position of the pieces viewed on an axial localizer position of the ocular nervus. There are 8 pieces from the anterior portion ( next to the ocular papilla ) to the posterior portion ( near the orbital vertex ) of the ocular nervus. Datas processing The first measure was to formalize the quality of the natural images. The images with deficient quality were rescanned until they met the SNR standards set for the analysis. Then eddy current deformations and gesture artefacts in the DT-MRI informations were corrected by using affine alliance, utilizing FMRIBs diffusion tool chest ( FSL, Oxford, UK. ) [ 25-26 ] . In order to be able to compare diffusion belongingss in patients and controls, a method to place matching anatomical parts was required. The first necessary measure was to happen a consistent spacial standardization for the two separate groups. Due to the different protocols for ocular nervus and ocular radiation we present two different methods for the processing of the several MRI-data, and depict these methods in the undermentioned subdivisions. Ocular nervus fibre Image enrollment The maps of MD, FA and eigenvector were calculated on a voxel-by-voxel footing, followed by a diagonalization of the reconstructed tensor matrix in order to obtain characteristic root of a square matrixs ( I »1, I »2, I »3 ) and eigenvectors utilizing DTIStudio ( MRI Studio Software, Johns Hopkins University, USA ) . To be able to rectify for planetary morphological differences a expansive mean b0 informations set was created from all topics. This mean image was so used as a mention relation to which each topic was positioned ( single b0 to template b0 ) with a 12-parameter affine theoretical account. The same transmutation parametric quantities were so used to co-register the MD and FA images to the templet b0. Regions of involvement ( ROI ) choice The intraorbital 4th bed of the nervus ( about 2.0cm after the ball ) was used for the undermentioned analysis ( See Fig.2 ) . The ROIs were defined manually on the b0-template ( mean non-diffusion-weighted ) dwelling of two square 2A-2 voxels ( Fig.2A ) . To avoid prejudice caused by the partial volume consequence, the ROIs were placed in the centre of the nervus. After averaging the images across the population, the b0-images contained significantly less noise than in single images. The associated color-coded maps were used for optimum ROI arrangement ( Fig.2B ) and to vouch objectiveness the process was performed by an experient radiotherapist blinded to the individuality of the topic. The ROIs of single instances were mapped from the templet b0 utilizing an reverse transmutation. These ROIs were so overlaid to the MD, FA and eigenvalue maps, where average values from the 4 voxels were obtained ( Fig.2C-D ) . Figure 2. ROI choice in the 3rd piece of the ON. ( A ) Non-diffusion-weighted b0 image, ( B ) Color-map, ( C ) FA map, and ( D ) MD map. The pointer is indicating to the ocular nervus. The ROIs were placed on the b0-averaged images and so transferred onto the FA and MD maps. Ocular radiation fibre All piece of lands in the informations were reconstructed utilizing a fiber assignment uninterrupted tracking algorithm [ 6 ] . In order to minimise the anatomical encephalon variableness between topics, a group-based Atlas model was introduced building a population specific templet. We applied the joint analysis model for group-based co-registration uniting structural and diffusion tensor MRI similar to Tao et Al. [ 27 ] , but utilized the Diffeomorphic Anatomical Registration utilizing Exponentiated Lie algebra ( DARTEL ) enrollment method [ 28 ] . As a high-dimensional diffeomorphic enrollment method, this novel technique utilizes the big distortion model parameterized by speed vector Fieldss to continue topology. The amount of square differences between the beginning and mark images are minimized at the same time to the enrollment, and the additive elastic energy of the distortions are used to falsify the mark image, which can better the realignment public presentation of little interior constructions [ 29-30 ] . Combined DTI and structural analysis grapevine Group templet maps were created utilizing statistical parametric function ( SPM8, Wellcome Department of Cognitive Neurology, Institute of Neurology, London, UK ) to find the normal inter-subject variableness of white affair tracts. We built a structural Atlas from all topics T1 images with the DARTEL tool chest. After this measure the b0 -volume of each DT-MRI information set was registered to the associated T1 image utilizing a 12-parameter affine transmutation. The corrected diffusion images of each topic were algebraically transformed to compose a structural Atlas infinite, enabling anatomical designation and comparing of the ocular radiation in the aforesaid atlas infinite. An overview of the process observing differences between the diffusion belongingss of fibre piece of lands is shown in Fig.3. Figure 3. Ocular radiation analysis grapevine jointly utilizing structural and diffusion images. Regions of involvement ( ROI ) choice After the atlas building process, we used a multiple ROI attack to work the fibre piece of land. The get downing ROI was manually placed in the sidelong geniculate organic structure on a reconstructed axial image with an AND operation. It was designed to include the ocular radiation of each side and the full environing white affair. For each piece of land, a 2nd spherical ROI with 4mm radius was placed in the occipital lobe near the midplane with an AND operation. Reconstructed fibres perforating both ROIs were considered representative of the ocular radiation ( See Fig.4 ) . These two ROIs were so overlaid on the FA maps and transferred to other directional diffusivity maps. Diffusivity in all spacial waies was obtained from every voxel along the path of the ocular radiation. Figure 4. DTI fiber tracking and extraction of ocular radiation. DTI fibre paths ( green ) were launched from a get downing part of involvement ( white box ) in a plane buttocks to the sidelong geniculate karyon. Fiber paths were filtered with a 2nd part of involvement ( two balls ) in a plane adjacent to the ocular cerebral mantle. Statistical analysis All statistical analyses were performed utilizing SPSS v13.0 ( SPSS Inc. , USA ) . In a first measure, ipsilateral differences between patients and controls were explored utilizing a mated t-test. To avoid the prejudice originating from the categorization of the bilateral involved nervousnesss of one patient being the same ON phase into the same group, we applied Generalized Estimating Equation ( GEE ) . This method, introduced by Zeger et Al. [ 31 ] , extends generalised additive theoretical accounts to suit correlated informations from topics with similar features. Consequences Directional diffusivity of ocular nervus Acute accent ON The survey consisted of 33 acute-stage instances: 26 first manifestations and 7 recurrent instances. Significant differences within the ROIs comparing the two subgroups of patients and their controls were detected in all DT-MRI measurings ( paired t trial, see Table 2, besides see Fig.5 ) . The average FA was significantly reduced ; the mean MD and I »aS? were increased in the acute-stage IDON instances compared to healthy controls. In patients with first manifestation, significantly decreased I »a values were detected ( t = 2.10, P = 0.046 ) . And increased I »a were found in recurrent patients compared to controls ( t = 0.84, P = 0.434 ) with no important difference. Since there were merely 7 instances with a perennial disease history, we decided to measure merely the first manifestation group and matched healthy group in Table 3 utilizing GEE. This survey proved the average FA from ON patients to be significantly lower compared to healthy controls ( omega = 61.053, P & lt ; 0.001 ) . Compared to healthy controls, we found drastically elevated I »aS? ( z = 19.181, P & lt ; 0.001 ) in the patients and somewhat decreased I »a , but the latter did non make statistical significance ( z = 3.414, P = 0.065 ) . ( A ) ( B ) ( C ) ( D ) Figure 5. Quantitative analysis of DT-MRI indices in ON. Relative alterations of the ( A ) FA, ( B ) MD, ( C ) I »a , ( D ) I »aS? in each ocular nervus from controls and the instances of first oncoming during acute phase ( expressed as mean A ± standard divergence ) . Paired t trial demonstrated that MD and I »aS? were significantly elevated and FA was notably reduced in affected nervousnesss. Table 2. Diffusion parametric quantities from the instances during acute stage of IDON ( first and perennial oncoming ) Indexs Acute Controls t-value p-value FA foremost 0.39A ± 0.08 0.59A ± 0.09 8.40 0.000 recurrent 0.33A ± 0.05 0.64A ± 0.11 7.46 0.000 MD foremost 1.50A ± 0.20 1.40A ± 0.30 2.22 0.036 recurrent 1.80A ± 0.28 1.20A ± 0.36 3.54 0.012 I »a foremost 2.18A ± 0.31 2.39A ± 0.45 2.10 0.046 recurrent 2.50A ± 0.31 2.27A ± 0.64 0.84 0.434 I »aS? foremost 1.10A ± 0.20 0.80A ± 0.27 5.40 0.000 recurrent 1.50A ± 0.28 0.70A ± 0.28 5.45 0.002 Thirty-three instances with IDON were of acute phase ( the continuance of the disease from scrutiny to last onset twenty-four hours was less than one month ) , of which 26 instances in 19 topics were foremost affected and seven instances in 7 topics suffered from recurrent episodes. Axial, radial, and average diffusivities ( I »a , I »aS? , MD ) are given in A µm2/ms. Fractional anisotropy is without units. All values of DTI indices are given as the mean A ± criterion divergence. IDON=idiopathic ocular neuritis. Table 3. The GEE consequences of diffusion indices from the instances of first oncoming during acute phase Indexs Parameter appraisal criterion divergence z-value p-value FA -0.201 0.026 61.053 0.000 MD 0.137 0.000 3.253 0.071 I »a -0.208 0.000 3.414 0.065 I »aS? 0.309 0.000 19.181 0.000 Twenty-six instances in 19 topics were foremost involved. The values of axial, radial, and average diffusivities ( I »a , I »aS? , MD ) are given in A µm2/ms. Fractional anisotropy is without units. All values are expressed as the natural logarithm of the ratio between controls and patients with IDON in the acute phase. IDON=idiopathic ocular neuritis. GEE=Generalized estimating equation. Subacute ON The DT-MRI information of 18 remitting instances is illustrated in Table 4. As is shown, both instances with first manifestation of IDON ( paired t trial, n = 6 ) ) and perennial IDON ( paired t trial, n = 12 ) showed a similar tendency with decreased FA values and increased MD, I »a and I »aS? when compared to controls ( see Table 4 ) . However, there was no important difference in I »a ( t = 2.46, P = 0.057 ) between subacute IDON patients with first episode and controls. We suspect that this may be due to the little sample size ( n=6 ) . Table 4. Diffusion indices from instances during the subacute stage of IDON ( first and perennial oncoming ) Indexs Acute Controls t-value p-value FA foremost 0.39A ±0.08 0.56A ±0.03 4.42 0.007 recurrent 0.35A ±0.10 0.56A ±0.05 8.01 0.000 MD foremost 1.80A ±0.28 1.40A ±0.08 3.87 0.012 recurrent 2.10A ±0.44 1.50A ±0.140 4.73 0.001 I »a foremost 2.64A ±0.36 2.34A ±0.10 2.46 0.057 recurrent 2.96A ±0.49 2.52A ±0.29 2.35 0.038 I »aS? foremost 1.40A ±0.27 0.90A ±0.09 4.25 0.008 recurrent 1.70A ±0.45 1.00A ±0.10 5.88 0.000 Eighteen instances with IDON were in the subacute phase ( the continuance of the disease from the scrutiny twenty-four hours to the last oncoming had been more than one month ) in which six instances in 5 topics had been affected for the first clip and twelve in 8 topics had been affected antecedently. Patients were defined as â€Å" recurrent † , if they had had more than two oncomings of symptoms at the clip of the MRI appraisal. Axial, radial, and average diffusivities ( I »a , I »aS? , MD ) are given in A µm2/ms. Fractional anisotropy is without units. All values of DTI indices are given as the mean A ± criterion divergence. IDON=idiopathic ocular neuritis. Directional diffusivity of ocular radiation The DT-MRI scrutiny of ocular radiation was performed on 23 patients. Nine patients, whose diseases had lasted from 1 twelvemonth to 13 old ages, and 14 patients, whose diseases had lasted from 8 yearss to 4 months, were included in this analysis. The path of the reconstructed fibres and tract-specific quantification was consistent with the known anatomy of the human ocular tract from old surveies conducted by Ciccarelli et Al. and Xie et Al. [ 21, 32 ] . These findings showed connexions from the posterior portion of the ocular radiation to ocular countries and connexions between the median portion and the karyon of the sidelong geniculate organic structure. Table 5 illustrates the average FA, MD, I »aS? and I »a within the reconstructed ocular radiation of 9 patients whose disease had lasted more than 1 twelvemonth ( mated T trial, n=9 ) . Compared to the control group, the FA values demo a statistically important lessening ( t = 3.45, P = 0.009 ) and the I »aS? value a dramat ic addition ( t = 3.92, P = 0.004 ) ( See Fig.6 ) . Compared to the controls, there is no statistically alteration in the mean FA, MD, I »aS? and I »a within the reconstructed ocular radiation of 14 patients, whose disease had lasted less than 1 twelvemonth ( mated T trial, n=14, see Table 6 ) . ( A ) ( B ) Figure 6. Relative alterations of the FA and I »aS? in each ocular nervus from controls and patients who had suffered more than one twelvemonth from ocular damage ( expressed as mean A ± standard divergence ) . Table 5. Diffusion parametric quantities in IDON patients whose disease had lasted more than 1 twelvemonth in comparing with controls Parameter ON Controls t-value p-value FA 0.46A ± 0.04 0.50A ± 0.03 3.45 0.009 MD 0.89A ± 0.05 0.84A ± 0.02 2.14 0.065 I »a 1.38A ± 0.07 1.37A ± 0.07 0.41 0.691 I »aS? 0.64A ± 0.06 0.58A ± 0.02 3.92 0.004 Nine topics are included. Axial, radial, and average diffusivities ( I »a , I »aS? , MD ) are given in A µm2/ms. Fractional anisotropy is without units. All values of DTI indices are given as the mean A ± criterion divergence. IDON=idiopathic ocular neuritis. Table 6. Diffusion parametric quantities in IDON patients whose disease had lasted less than 1 twelvemonth in comparing with controls Indexs ON Controls t-value p-value FA 0.49A ±0.04 0.48A ±0.03 0.62 0.547 MD 0.88A ±0.04 0.87A ±0.04 1.06 0.308 I »a 1.41A ±0.03 1.38A ±0.06 2.06 0.062 I »aS? 0.62A ±0.05 0.61A ±0.04 0.34 0.738 Fourteen topics are included. Axial, radial, and average diffusivities ( I »a , I »aS? , MD ) were given in A µm2/ms. Fractional anisotropy was without units. All values of DTI indices are given as the mean A ± criterion divergence. IDON=idiopathic ocular neuritis. Discussion The most common cause for IDON is believed to be an autoimmune reaction against the medulla environing the fibres in the ocular nervus which induces an inflammatory response that can ensue nerve harm. In some instances, early symptoms of ON may bespeak an eruption of MS, a disease besides caused by redness and axon harm in encephalon and the spinal cord. Therefore, a alternate biomarker is needed to uncover the implicit in pathological procedures of ON. In the current survey we used the directional diffusivities from DT-MRI to look into the abnormalcies in ocular nervousnesss and ocular radiation after ON. The diameter of the human ocular nervus is about 3-4mm. The nervus is surrounded by several beds of membranes, for illustration nervus sheath and orbital fat. Artifacts caused by eye-movement and the susceptibleness effects caused by nearby fistulas make it hard to get dependable diffusion image informations and to keep an equal SNR. Methods like spin-echo echo planar imagination ( SE-EPI ) [ 33 ] , interior volume imaging ( IVI ) or decreased field of position technique [ 34-36 ] were introduced to better image quality. In this survey, the SE-EPI protocol, a comparatively low maximal b-value with 600 s/mm2, six independent waies and a high figure of acquisitions were used to guarantee a suited a sufficiently high SNR. This method has antecedently been validated by several writers, such as Trip et al. , Kolbe et al. , Xu et Al. and many more [ 12, 17, 34, 36-37 ] . In add-on, we scanned the ocular nervus bilaterally in a coronal plane since the image deformation was greater in a sepa rate one-sided acquisition. Kolbe et Al. [ 12 ] scanned ocular nervousnesss separately in 10 coronal oblique pieces set extraneous to the nervus and analyzed the first six pieces. The group found the diffusivity values to alter drastically along the length of the ocular nervus. The FA values in the 1st and 2nd piece were well lower and the MD values well higher than in other parts. No important differences in FA or MD were found in the 3 last pieces. In the presented survey, we divided the ocular nervus into eight extraneous coronal oblique pieces. The superimposed form of DT-MRI diffusivity was confirmed in a pretest survey: the ocular nervus on pieces 6-8 was identical in most instances, and the diffusion indices were susceptible to vitreous organic structure in the pieces 1-2. In contrast, robust directional diffusivity was observed in the pieces 3-5. FA and MD values showed no important differences between the right and the left ocular nervus in healthy controls as illustrated in Table 7. Randomized discrep ancy block-analysis indicated important differences in FA but non in MD among the pieces ( see Table 8, FA: F = 17.54, P & lt ; 0.001 ; MD: F=0.500, p=0.613 ) . In add-on, the FA values in the 4th and 5th pieces were higher than in the 3rd piece ( p & lt ; 0.000 ( 3rd vs. 4th ) , p & lt ; 0.000 ( 3rd vs. 5th ) ) , but did non differ statistically from each other ( p = 0.757 ( 4th vs. 5th ) ) . We suggest that the consequence of oculus motions is smaller in the posterior portion of the ocular nervus. We assume that two factors may impact the diffusivity values: foremost, the possible mobility of the ocular nervus may be reduced in the mid-posterior portion ; 2nd, a more directional motion of H2O molecules in the well-organized and compact fibres. The fifth bed of the ocular nervus ( about 2.5 centimeters distal from the orb ) could be measured clearly in most topics, but measurings failed in five teenaged and in one 60-year-old patient due to reconstruction jobs. For that ground we had to utilize the 4th bed ( about 2 centimeter after the ball ) in this survey. DT-MRI utilizations H2O diffusion features to retrace white affair construction through diffusion way and amplitude. Altered diffusion parametric quantities were found in patients with chronic ON compared to healthy controls: MD was increased and FA decreased [ 13 ] . Harmonizing to Smith et Al. [ 38 ] , the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the clinical symptoms in the ague ON include redness, hydrops, demyelination and loss of axons in the ocular nervus. A self-generated visus recovery a few hebdomads or even months after the hurt has been reported in some instances. Many factors like a diminishing inflammatory response, remyelination, Restoration of conductivity in demyelinated axons, as suggested by Smith et Al. [ 38 ] and cortical or subcortical malleability, as proposed for illustration by Toosy et Al. and Werring et Al. [ 14-15, 39-40 ] may take to the ocular recovery. Since the demyelination presumptively is a dynamic procedure, we hypothesized that different DTI indic es may alter at different phases of ON. Table 7. Lateral differences of FA and MD values in pieces 3-5 from 10 healthy controls in the pretest survey FA MD Right side Left side t-value p-value Right side Left side t-value p-value 3rd 0.57A ± 0.04 0.56A ± 0.06 0.297 0.774 1.57A ± 0.14 1.60A ± 0.19 -0.795 0.452 4th 0.67A ± 0.05 0.67A ± 0.05 -0.291 0.779 1.61A ± 0.23 1.58A ± 0.18 0.853 0.418 5th 0.67A ± 0.05 0.68A ± 0.05 -0.472 0.65 1.50A ± 0.20 1.52A ± 0.20 -0.628 0.548 FA and MD values showed no important differences between the right and the left ocular nervus in healthy controls Average Diffusivities ( MD ) are given in A µm2/ms. Fractional anisotropy ( FA ) is without units. Table 8. Comparison of FA and MD values in pieces 3-5 from 10 healthy controls in the pretest survey Indexs Slice Statistic 3rd ( meanA ±std ) 4th ( meanA ±std ) 5th ( meanA ±std ) F-value p-value FA 0.56A ± 0.04 0.67A ± 0.05 0.68A ± 0.05 17.54 & lt ; 0.001 MD 1.58A ± 0.15 1.60A ± 0.21 1.51A ± 0.21 0.500 0.613 Randomized discrepancy block-analysis indicated important differences in FA but non in MD among 3rd-5th pieces. In add-on, after multiple comparings by the least important difference ( LSD ) trial, we found the FA values in the 4th and 5th pieces were higher than in the 3rd piece ( F = 17.54, P & lt ; 0.001 ; P & lt ; 0.000 ( 3rd vs. 4th ) , p & lt ; 0.000 ( 3rd vs. 5th ) ) , but did non differ statistically from each other ( p = 0.757 ( 4th vs. 5th ) ) . Average Diffusivities ( MD ) are given in A µm2/ms. Fractional anisotropy ( FA ) is without units. Naismith et Al. [ 20 ] discovered the FA and I »aS? to be the first parametric quantities to alter in the acute IDON. I »a was decreased to a singular extent in the acute IDON and this step was found to correlate with the ocular result. In our survey, we found significantly increased average I »aS? and decreased FA in 33 instances with acute IDON during first episode and recurrent instances when compared to controls, and besides detected a lessening in the I »a of patients with a first episode in the acute phase by utilizing mated t trial ( t =2.10, P = 0.046 ) although that difference did non make statistical significance ( z = 3.414, P = 0.065 ) after GEE theoretical account analysis was performed. Since the pathological alterations in recurrent instances are more complex than in instances with first clip manifestation, and since the sample size of recurrent instances was little ( n=6 ) , we will merely discourse the first episode subgroup as we assume that this theoretical account likely reflects the pathological alterations in acute period more closely. In instances with white affair hurt merely affecting medulla devolution, we hypothesize that I »aS? is likely to increase, reflecting the increased freedom of H2O molecules to undergo Brownian Motion perpendicular to the axons due to the loss of myelin unity. The consequences of our survey confirm consistent pathological alterations and back up our premise. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis ( EAE ) is a widely used carnal theoretical account, which can imitate many characteristics of human MS. ON is one of the phenotypes in EAE mice. The I »a and I »aS? appear to be both sensitive and specific for axonal hurt and demyelination, severally in Xu et Al. survey [ 14 ] . Wu et Al. [ 41 ] studied an EAE murine theoretical account in the ague phase utilizing in vivo diffusion-weighted imagination with diffusion sensitising gradients parallel and perpendicular to the axonal piece of lands. They detected that progressive acute axonal harm resulted in a 23 % lessening in I »a at 20 yearss after immunisation. Using a mated t-test, we found that I »a lessenings in patients with first episode in the ague IDON, a determination we ascribe to axonal hurt happening during the acute phase. However, this decision needs to be reconfirmed by more research. Trip et Al. and Kolbe et Al. [ 12, 17 ] found increased MD and reduced FA-values in patients with one-sided IDON who had suffered from ocular symptoms for a lower limit of at least one twelvemonth. The writers considered these alterations to be chiefly caused by axonal loss, with demyelination and gliosis playing a partial function. In our survey, 18 instances with IDON in the subacute phase, both of first manifestations and recurrent instances, showed significantly decreased FA and increased I »aS? , I »a and MD when compared to controls, back uping the findings of the aforesaid writers. The DT-MRI fibre paths and cleavage of ocular radiation from the sidelong geniculate karyon to the ocular cerebral mantle have already been studied by Yamamoto et Al. and Berman et Al. [ 42-43 ] . Bajraszewski et Al. [ 44 ] found significantly increased MD and reduced FA besides in the ocular radiation in patients with ocular neuritis ( symptom onset 4.0 A ± 0.4 old ages ) compared to controls and suggested the alterations to be caused by anterograde effects of the nervus harm. Our survey found no important alterations in diffusion parametric quantities in patients with ON continuance under one twelvemonth, but a significantly decreased FA and higher I »aS? if the disease continuance exceeded that period of clip. This difference indicates more serious wasting of the ocular radiation after the return of symptoms. The most likely pathogenesis of unnatural diffusion in ocular radiation would look to be secondary lesions induced by axonal devolution after ON. We besides observed an increased MD value in ocular radiation in chronic ON patients compared with control topics. However, the alteration was non important ( t = 2.14, P = 0.065 ) , perchance because of the little figure of patients. These findings support our hypothesis that unnatural diffusion in ocular radiation is an of import feature of ON. Further research is still needed to further beef up the function of DT-MRI measurings in ON rating and degree appraisal. Decisions In the current survey, we applied DT-MRI methodological analysis to look into alterations in ocular nervus and radiation. Our consequences in footings of diffusion parametric quantity alterations both during ague and remitting ON support and widen antecedently reported findings. Additionally, we found significantly decreased FA and increased I »aS? in the ocular radiation of chronic ON patients. We were able to observe dynamic alterations in the diffusion parametric quantities during the development of chronic ON, perchance bespeaking ongoing medulla harm. Based on our fresh findings we suggest directional diffusivity to possess great possible as a specific biomarker and rating step for myelin hurt. Future probes are needed to find whether these indices have practical parts to the diagnosing and forecast for patients with ON. Recognitions This work was supported by grants from NSFC ( 20670530, 60875079 ) , the 863 undertaking ( 2007AA01Z327 ) and Beijing Nova Plan ( 2007A094 ) . We would wish to thank Prof. Chunshui Yu and Dr. Wen Qin for proficient aid geting MR images, Dr. Wei Shi, MD Nora Hailla, and Dr. Siegfried Wurster for valuable expertness and counsel to this research, Prof. Xiaojun Zhang for patient enlisting and all our topics kindly holding to take portion in this survey.